Hunter-Gatherers
Economic Strategies
Social Structure
Case Studies: Aka & Okiek
Hunter-Gatherers
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Economic
• no direct growing of domestic plants
• No herding of domestic animals
(except dogs)
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Social
• bands, small groups (20-25)
• Egalitarian
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Equal access to all things necessary.
Common Beliefs/Misconceptions
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Comparative, evolutionary and
materialist explanations.
• Studied because represent
antique/extinct stage of human
culture.
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Yardstick of human kind
• Society at its most basic level.
• “Noble Savage”
Contribution to Studying World Cultures
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Direct encounters with primitive
people spawned field of
Anthropology.
“Arm-chair” anthropology-people
would interpret what explorers
described about the “primitive”
people they encountered.
Highly Variable
Subsistence
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Hunting (Inuit) important in some,
Gathering in others (!Kung).
Organization
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Patrilineal, Matrilineal, Composite
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Patrilineal-exogamous, 50-100, patrilocal,
patrilineal descent and land inheritance.
Matrilineal-exogamous, 50-100, matrilocal,
matrilineal descent and land inheritance.
Composite-several individual families,
endogamous, bilateral descent, no rules of
residence (Algonkian and Athapaskan)
Generalized Foraging Model
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Egalitarianism-mobility constrains
property, maintains equality.
Low Pop Density-food supply keeps pop
low, but also social controls such as
abstinence, abortion, and infanticide.
Lack of Territoriality-resource availability,
mobility
Minimum of Food Storage-movement
and visiting.
Flexible Band composition (H-G=Band).
"Original Affluent Society"
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Sahlins-hunter-gatherers spent
little time working, had all the food
they needed.
Leisure hours spent sleeping and
socializing.
Supported by Lee’s work with the
!Kung
• 20-30 hours per week “working”
Interdependent Model
All H-G affected by “outside” influences.
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contact, disease, shot, traded with, etc.
“The gods must be crazy”
H-g today rarely obtain all food from
foraging.
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Pushed to edge environments.
“Professional Primitives” Model
H-G interactions with non-h-gs.
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Some remain h-gs because it is their most
viable option given restricted circumstances.
Pygmy
Hunter-Gatherers
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Indigenous peoples known as Pygmies live in the
tropical rain forests of Central Africa, Southeast Asia,
New Guinea, and the Philippines.
They are the earliest known inhabitants of the Congo
Basin in Africa and are estimated to number 150,000
to 300,000.
The best-known tribe, the Mbuti or Bambuti, are the
shortest of all human groups, averaging near 51
inches in height.
African Pygmies may be divided into four groups:
the Binga along the Atlantic coast, including the
Beku, Bongo, Jelli, Koa, Kola, Kuya, Rimba, and Yaga;
the Twa in the high regions surrounding Lake Kivu;
the Gesera and Zigaba in Rwanda and Burundi; and
the Mbuti, Aka, and Efe of the Ituri forest in
northeastern Congo (Kinshasa).
Housing
Pygmies live in huts called mongulus. They are round or
rectangular one-family houses made of branches and leaves
and are normalt always built by women.
Collecting Honey
Marriage
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Pygmies live in small bands of less than fifty
members.
• Each band has its own territory but they move on
to different territories when the food supply runs
low.
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Inter-band marriages are common and
individuals are free to leave one and join
another.
• Marriage is by sister exchange. A man must
arrange the marriage of one of the female
members of his band to a man in his prospective
bride's band. Pygmies are normally monogamous
and have a strong family structure.

There are no formal leaders heading a band.
Problems are solved through open
discussions.
Hunting
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Game size and hunting technique
• Miseteke-net hunting camp-more blue
duiker.
• Mokumbokumbo-more rodents.
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Net hunting is affected mostly by
behavior of animals.
• very young blue duikers stay hidden
Okiek Hunter-Gatherers
Okiek
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Kaplelach and Kipchorwonek
southernmost Okiek
Mau Escarpment, Kenya, about
100 miles north of Nairobi.
Highland forest dwellers
Interactions with Maasai and other
pastoral, agricultural groups.
Ecology
Mau Escarpment
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rises in altitude from 1800-2800 m over 50 miles
Five kinds of forest
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Soyua-open bushy forest from 1800-2100.
Sasaontet-forest with glades and fields 2100-2400.
Tirap-thick forest 2400-2600.
Sisiyuet-tick bamboo stands 2400-2600.
Mau-open moorland, 2600-2800.
Lineage owned, patrilineally transmittted
parcels (tracts).
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Moves primarily determined by honey availability.
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Tirap from Dec-Jan
Soyua from May-September
Aug-Nov Sasanotet
Social Structure
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Residence groups of small extended
families.
Patrilineal core.
• Six to ten adjacent lineages constitute
a group.
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Sons inherit tracts and hives.
• Age-set relations cross-cut lineages.
• Unites men of different lineages.
• Younger age-set respects older.
Gender Roles
Resources and Production
Men
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traditionally providers of meat and honey.
Made decisions regarding household
Travelled farther and longer than women.
Women
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very little contribution to diet.
Child rearing main responsibility.
After maize and millet, women had more
control over food.
Okiek Hunters & dogs