
Challenge biologically based theories
◦ Argue internal drives and motives are not implicated
in crime

Rather, the motivation for crime is derived from
society
◦ Societal forces pressure people to commit crime
◦ Certain phases of the social structure generate
circumstances in which violation of the law constitutes
a “normal” response
◦ Social structures exert a definite pressure upon
people to engage in crime


Anomie and strain theories are distinct, but
related, theories
Anomie theories have a macro-level focus
while strain theories have a micro-level focus
◦ Anomie theories explain why some societies have
higher rates of crime than others
◦ Strain theories explain why some individuals
commit more crime than others

Merton’s (1938) anomie theory
◦ Argues the U.S. places a relatively strong emphasis on
the goal of monetary success, but a weak emphasis
on the legitimate norms (e.g., education, hard work)
for achieving this goal
◦ The goal-seeking behavior of individuals is subject to
less regulation
 Societies with little regulation are characterized by a
sense of “anomie” or normlessness
 Free to pursue monetary success using
whatever means necessary, including crime



Most widely read article in sociology
Presents both an anomie theory and a strain
theory
Anomie theory focuses on why the U.S. has
higher rates of crimes than others
◦ Focuses on the relative emphasis placed on cultural
goals and institutionalized norms for achieving
these goals

Implicates the cultural and social structures in
the explanation of crime
◦ The cultural structure consists of the goals and norms
 Goals: what people are supposed to achieve
 Involves varying degrees of prestige and sentiment
 In the U.S., monetary success is a major goal
 Norms: how people are to achieve the goals
◦ The social structure provides people with the actual
means to achieve the cultural goals
 In the U.S., everyone does not have the same access to
legitimate means

Emphasis on these two elements, the cultural goals and
institutional norms, vary independently
◦ Excessive emphasis on the goals with little concern for the
norms
 This gap puts a strain on the norms, and anomie ensues
 People then are free to use any means necessary to achieve the
goals, including criminal behavior
 Merton focused on this disjuncture
◦ Excessive emphasis on the norms with little concern for the
goals
 People ritualistically adhere to the norms to the point where the
behavior could be obsessive
 Stability is maintained and change is flouted

Societies that have a similar emphasis on the
goals and norms are integrated and relatively
stable, but still allow change
◦ Successful equilibrium is maintained between the
goals and the norms when satisfactions accrue to
the individual from both the achievement of the
goals and the process from which it was achieved

In the U.S., there is an excessive emphasis on the cultural goal of
monetary success for all while there is little emphasis on the
institutional norms
◦ The goals transcend class lines and are held by everyone in
society
◦ This excessive focus on the goals generates literal
demoralization or a deinstitutionalization of the institutional
means to achieve a goal, which leads to anomie
 Anomie—sense of normlessness
 Norms lose their power to control people’s behavior
◦ The emphasis on the culturally induced success goal becomes
divorced from the coordinated institutional norms emphasis
 Fraud, corruption, robbery, etc., become common
 The “end-justifies-the-means” doctrine is the guiding tenet


The lack of high integration between the means-and-end
elements of the cultural pattern and the particular class
structure combine to favor a heightened frequency of
antisocial conduct in society
Also, legitimate means (e.g., formal education, economic
resources) to achieve valued goals are often limited to
certain groups
 There exist class differences in the
accessibility of the means needed
to reach these goals
 Thus use any means necessary (including
illegitimate means) to obtain the monetary
success goal

This theory can help explain the correlations
between poverty and crime
◦ When poverty is combined with limited opportunities
and a commonly shared system of success symbols,
there is an association between poverty and crime
 This is the case in the U.S.
◦ Do not see an association between
poverty and crime where there is a
rigidified class structure coupled with
differential class symbols of achievement

Merton’s anomie theory was largely ignored
until the 1980s
◦ Rather his strain theory was more popular

Messner and Rosenfeld drew heavily on Merton
when developing institutional-anomie theory
◦ Attempt to explain why the U.S. has such high crime
rates
◦ Argue the “American Dream”—the emphasis
on the unrestrained pursuit of monetary
success by everyone—plays an important role

Argue the cultural emphasis on money is
paralleled by an institutional structure that is
dominated by the economy
◦ Other institutions (e.g., school, family, politics) are
subservient to the economy
◦ Noneconomic goals are devalued
◦ Noneconomic institutions must accommodate the
economy
◦ Economic norms have permeated other institutions




Levels of crime in the U.S. are very high
compared to other nations
High rates of crime are not due to biological
or moral failings
Rather, high crime rates are due to the
“American Dream”
Based off Merton’s theory, but extend in two
ways
1. Restore the macro-level intent of Merton’s anomie
theory
2. Extend anomie theory by considering connections
between core elements of the American Dream and
other social institutions


The American Dream has been highly
functional in that it encourages high levels of
ambition, but it also can exert a pressure for
crime
Anomic tendencies inherent in the American
Dream both produce and are reproduced by
an institutional balance of power dominated
by the economy

The anomic tendencies of the American
Dream derive from four value commitments:
1. Achievement orientation

Personal worth is evaluated on what people achieve

Success is the ultimate measure of social worth

Leads to pressure to achieve at any cost
2. Individualism

Encouraged to make it own your own

Others are seen as competition

The anomic tendencies of the American
Dream derive from four value commitments:
3. Universalism

Everyone is encouraged to aspire to social ascent

No one is exempt from the pursuit of success
4. Monetary rewards

A distinctive feature of American culture is the
preeminent role of money as the “metric” of success

A “currency” for measuring achievement

Open-ended so there is no stopping point,
which leads to never-ending achievement

These four value commitments encourage
members of society to pursue ends limited
only by expediency considerations

IAT also examines the role of social
institutions in society
◦ Social institutions are the building blocks of society
◦ Relatively stable sets of norms and values, statuses
and roles, and groups and organizations that
regulate human conduct to meet the basic needs of
society

The main social institutions include:
◦ Economy: organize the production
and distribution of goods and services
◦ Polity: mobilize and distribute power to
obtain collective goals
◦ Family: maintenance and replacement of
members in society
◦ Education: transmit basic cultural standards
to new generations and prepare youth for
the demand of adult occupational roles

Functions of the different social institutions are
overlapping and interdependent
◦ Thus, some coordination and cooperation among the
institutions is required for societies to “work”
◦ However, this can also lead to conflict between the
institutions
◦ In any given society, there is an institutional balance
of power
 A distinctive arrangement of social institutions that
reflect a balancing of the different institutional claims
and requisites

The core elements of the American Dream have
their institutional underpinnings in the
economy
◦ The most important feature of the U.S. economy is its
capitalist nature (e.g., private ownership, free
markets)
◦ Private owners of property are profit-motivated, and
workers are willing to exchange labor for wages
 The motivation underlying this is financial returns
◦ Capitalist economies are also highly competitive
 Cultivates a competitive, innovative spirit

What is distinctive about the U.S. is the
exaggerated emphasis on monetary success
and unrestrained receptivity to innovation
◦ Monetary success overwhelms all other goals and is
the principal measuring rod of success

Other institutions are unable to tame
economic imperatives
Capitalism in the U.S. developed without
institutional restraints

◦
Thus, the economy assumed an unusual dominance
in the balance of power
◦
This has continued and is manifested in three ways:
1. Devaluation of noneconomic functions and roles
2. Accommodation to economic requirements by other
institutions
3. Penetration of economic norms into other
institutional domains
Devaluation of noneconomic institutional functions and roles
1.
Education
◦

Seen as a means to occupational attainment in the economic system

Acquisition of knowledge/learning is not valued

Being a good student/teacher is not prestigious
Family
◦

Homeowner, not homemaker, has prestige

Stay-at-home moms/dads have inferior status
Polity
◦

Little social honor on the politician

If refuse to vote, mild disapproval; if refuse to work, socially
degraded

Purpose of the government tends to be conceptualized in terms of its
capacity to facilitate the individual pursuit of economic prosperity
Accommodation of other institutions to the economy
2.
Family
◦

Routines are dominated by schedules, rewards, and penalties
of labor markets

Employers resist family leave time

There is a necessity of paid employment to support the family
Education
◦

The timing of school reflects occupational demands rather
than features of the learning process

People go to school to prepare for “good” jobs

Return to school to upgrade skills
Polity
◦

Must take care to cultivate and maintain an environment
hospitable to investment or risk being “downgraded” by
financial markets
Penetration of economic norms into other institutional areas
3.
Education
◦

Rely on grading system as extrinsic rewards, like wages, to insure
compliance with goals

Individual competition for external rewards

Teaching oriented toward testing
Polity
◦

A “bottom-line” mentality develops

Belief government would work better if it were run like a business
Family
◦

Language of the household: husbands and wives are partners who
manage the household

Huge movement of women into the workforce

Thus, the American Dream contributes to
high levels of crime in two important ways:
1. Direct: through the creation of an anomic
normative order (an environment in which social
norms are unable to exert a strong regulatory
force on members of society)
2. Indirect: contributes to an institutional balance of
power that inhibits the development of strong
mechanisms of external social control

Most studies have suggested that crime rates are lower in
societies and areas that are not dominated by the
economy
◦ Crime rates are lower in areas with stronger families,
schools, religion, and political institutions

More difficult to test the prediction that crime is higher in
the U.S. due to the emphasis on the pursuit of money
◦ One study showed that people in the U.S. do not place a
relatively strong emphasis on money
◦ However, a 2007 study found crime is higher in areas in the
U.S. where people express a high commitment to monetary
success and a low commitment to the legitimate means for
achieving success

Focuses on the micro level
◦ Explains why individuals and groups within a society
are more likely to engage in crime
◦ Argues individuals are pressured into crime when
prevented from achieving cultural goals through
legitimate channels
◦ In the U.S., everyone is encouraged to pursue
monetary success, but some are prevented from
achieving that success through legitimate means
 Some people may respond by engaging in crime (most
conform)

Also presented in Merton’s (1938) “Social
Structure and Anomie”


The gap between the cultural goals and the
institutionalized means puts strain on
individuals
Individuals can adapt in five ways:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Conformity
Innovation
Ritualism
Retreatism
Rebellion
People can shift from one adaptation to
another as they engage in different social
activities
Conformity
1.
◦
In all societies, conformity to both the goals and
the means is the most common adaptation
◦
This is why stability and continuity of a society is
maintained
◦
Conventional role behavior is the rule, not the
exception
Innovation
2.
◦
Occurs when people still value the cultural goals
but reject the institutionalized means
◦
Thus, individuals are free to obtain the goals by
the most efficient means necessary, which can
often be crime (e.g., stealing, prostitution, drug
dealing)
◦
Often occurs in areas where there
is limited opportunity
Ritualism
3.
◦
Occurs when people reject the cultural goals but
still value the institutionalized means
◦
Gain pleasure from practicing traditional
ceremonies
◦
Low expectations regarding the goals
◦
Individual just goes through the motions
Retreatism
4.
◦
Occurs when people reject both the cultural goals
and the institutionalized means
◦
Least common of the adaptations
◦
These people are in society, but not of it
◦
Can include the activities of psychotics,
psychoneurotics, tramps, vagrants, drug addicts,
and alcoholics
◦
Have sense of defeatism/resignation
manifested in escape mechanisms
Rebellion
5.
Occurs when people reject both the cultural goals
and the institutionalized means but substitute an
alternative set of goals and means
◦

Example: become a good fighter
◦
Can include revolutionaries who seek radical
change in the existing social structure
◦
Often new goals and means are in direct contrast to
the conventional goals and means of mainstream
society


Albert K. Cohen was a student of both
Sutherland and Merton
Argued that strained individuals
are unlikely to engage in crime
unless they first form or join a
delinquent subculture whose
values are conducive to crime

Provides a general explanation for the origin of
deviant subcultures and applies this theory to
explain the origin and content of male,
working-class urban gangs

Like Merton, he argues delinquency is caused
by goal blockage

Unlike Merton, monetary success is not the
only goal that is blocked
◦ Middle-class status (respect from others and financial
success) is also blocked

Argues all human behavior, including
delinquency, is based on the psychogenic
assumption
◦ Our behavior is an ongoing series of efforts to solve
problems
◦ Seek to solve problems and not create new ones
 Select solutions from those established in our social
groups

In order for this culture to form that has a
solution to a problem, there must be effective
interaction with one another and a number of
actors with similar problems of adjustment

Individuals in these groups come up with an
innovative solution to solve these common
problems

In lower- and working-class areas, youths must solve the
problem of not being able to obtain middle-class status
◦ They experience status frustration
◦ Can achieve financial success through crime; however,
cannot achieve other aspects of middle-class status (e.g.,
respect) through crime
◦ Thus, lower- and working-class boys adapt to their goal
blockage by setting up an alternative status system in
which they can achieve success
 Value everything the middle-class rejects
 Gain status within their subculture by being everything the
middle class is not; however, they lose status with the middle
class

This explains higher rates of crime in the lower
and working classes
◦ Working-class boys are more likely than their middleclass peers to be at the bottom of the status hierarchy
when they enter a middle-class world
◦ To the degree they value middle-class standards, they
face a problem of adjustment because they do not
have the resources to gain that status
 Thus, they are “in the market” for a solution to this
status frustration and join delinquent subcultures that
value crime and aggression



Dominated the field in the 1950s and 1960s with major
impacts on public policy
One of the inspirations for the War on Poverty
◦ Increase the opportunities of the poor to achieve success
through legitimate means
Came under attack in the late 1960s and 1970s
◦ Many studies failed to find support for the theory
 Tested by examining the disjuncture between expectations and
aspirations
 Found crime highest among those with low expectations and
aspirations—not supporting the theory
 Self-report studies found delinquency not concentrated just in
the lower class


Recently, researchers have argued there are
better ways to measure strain than the
disjuncture between aspirations and
expectations
Using alternate and more direct measures,
this research has found some support for
classic strain theory

Recently, classic strain theory has been used to
explain group differences in crime rates
◦ Economic deprivation is found to be a huge predictor
of community differences in crime rates; however, it is
only weakly related to societal differences
 All societies do not value economic success to the
same extent
◦ Economic inequality is a strong predictor of societal
differences in crime rates
 Especially if the inequality is due to discrimination


In response to the criticisms of classic strain (e.g.,
it cannot explain middle-class crime), several
efforts have been made to revise the theory
One major revision is that strain is a function of
relative deprivation
◦ One’s level of strain is dependent on how much money one
has relative to those in one’s reference group
◦ Compare self to people around you
 If do not match up, can feel strain

Another revision argues adolescents pursue a
variety of goals in addition to middle-class
status
◦ These include: popularity with
peers and romantic partners,
athletic success, positive relations
with parents, teachers, and others,
good grades, etc.
◦ Thus, middle-class youth experience strain
quite frequently (not just lower-class youth)
◦ Not tested adequately, but preliminary research is not
promising

Robert Agnew significantly broadened the
focus of strain theory

Argued there are multiple sources of strain
◦
Merton focused on the goal blockage of monetary
success or positively valued goals through legitimate
means
◦
Agnew presented more strains, distinguished
between objective and subjective strains and
experienced, vicarious, and anticipated strains
◦
Discussed which strains are most likely to lead to
crime and why



People engage in crime because they
experience strains or stressors
Crime is a type of corrective action people can
use to cope with, reduce, or escape their
strains and negative emotions (e.g., anger and
frustration) associated with the strain
Crime is not the only way to cope
◦ Crime is more likely when the individual lacks the
ability to cope in a legal manner
 Do not have the verbal skills to negotiate, the costs of
crime are low, etc.

Strains are events or conditions that are
disliked by the individual

Strain results from negative relationships with
others

There are three major types of negative
relations, which include relations that:
1.Prevent or threaten to prevent the achievement of
positively valued goals
2.Remove or threaten to remove the achievement of
positively valued goals
3.Present or threaten to present negatively valued
stimuli

Agnew discusses a variety of strains
◦ Objective strains: events and conditions are that generally
disliked by most people
 Physical assaults, deprived of food and shelter, etc.
◦ Subjective strains: people differ in their subjective
evaluations of the same events/conditions
 What is strongly disliked by one, may only be mildly disliked by
another
 Influenced by people’s personality traits, goals and values, prior
experiences
 Must look at the individual person
 Must look at the individual’s subjective evaluation of a strain in
order to determine the real relationship between crime and
strain

Agnew also focused on experienced, vicarious,
and anticipated strains
◦ Experienced: strains the individual personally endured
◦ Vicarious: strains experienced by others around the
individual, especially those to whom the individual
feels close (e.g., family, friends)
 Can upset the individual and lead to criminal coping
 Could be seeking revenge, trying to prevent further
harm
◦ Anticipated: the individual’s expectation that the
current strains will continue into the future or new
strains will be experienced
 May commit crime to try to prevent the strain from
occurring

Not all strains result in crime

Strains are most likely to lead to crime when
they are seen as:
1. High in magnitude
2. Unjust
3. Associated with low social control
4. Create some pressure or incentive for criminal
coping
1.
High in magnitude
◦
More severe strains result in stronger negative emotional
reactions
Severity refers to the extent to which the strain is
negatively evaluated
◦

Extent to which it is disliked
◦
Creates a stronger pressure for corrective action
◦
More likely to be seen as severe if:
1. High in degree or size
2. Frequent, recent, long in duration, or expected to continue
3. Threatens the core goals, needs, and/or values of the person
Unjust
2.
◦
Makes individuals more angry
◦
Seen as unjust when:

It involves the voluntary and intentional violation of a
relevant justice norm or rule

The perpetrator freely chose to treat the victim in a
way he/she knew the victim would dislike
Associated with low social control
3.
Several types of social control
◦

Direct: extent to which others set rules prohibiting
crime, monitor the person’s behavior, and sanction
violations

Emotional bond or attachment to conventional
others: care what others think and do not want to let
these others down

Investment into conventional institutions: have time
and resources invested in conventional behaviors
and do not want to lose them through crime

Beliefs regarding crime: believe the laws are valid
Associated with low social control
3.
◦
When the strain lowers the amount of social
control on an individual, the person is more likely
to cope criminally
◦
Examples:

Parental rejection (associated with little direct
control and low emotional bonds)

Unemployment (associated with low investment)
Create pressure or incentive for criminal
coping
4.
◦
Some strains easily resolved through crime and less
easily resolved through legal channels
◦
Some strains expose individuals to others who
model, reinforce, and teach beliefs favorable to
crime
◦
Examples:

Desperate need for money (quicker to get through
crime than through a job)

Child abuse victims (exposed to criminal models)

Crime is also especially likely:
◦ When individuals experience two or more strains
◦ Experience strains close together in time

This taxes the individual’s coping responses

Strains increase the likelihood of crime
because:
1. Strains lead to negative emotions
Anger, jealousy, frustration, depression, fear


Anger found to partially mediate the effect of strain on
crime

Creates pressure for corrective action

Reduces perceived costs of crime

Strains increase the likelihood of crime
because:
2. Strains lead to the personality traits of negative
emotionality and low constraint

People with negative emotionality are easily upset
and have an aggressive interactional style

Tend to act without thinking, engage in risky
behavior, reject social norms

Studies have found support for this

Strains increase the likelihood of crime
because:
3. Strains may reduce levels of social control

Many strains involve negative treatment by
conventional others

Strains are often chronic and occur on a repeated
basis

This reduces one’s emotional bond to others,
reduces investment in conventional activities,
reduces direct control, and reduces a person’s belief
in the law

Strains increase the likelihood of crime
because:
4. Strains may foster the social learning of crime
Increases the likelihood that individuals will join or
form criminal groups


The members of these groups model, reinforce, and
teach criminal behaviors

Increases the appeal of criminal groups

Increases the likelihood that a person views crime as
desirable or justifiable


Not all people cope with strains through
crime, and most cope in a legal manner
Criminal coping is most likely when:
1. Individuals lack the ability to cope with strains in a
legal manner
 Due to individual traits, resources, and social
support
2. The costs of criminal coping are low
 Low probability for sanctions, nothing to lose,
procriminal beliefs
3. Individuals are disposed to crime
 Personality traits, believe crime is appropriate,
associate with criminal others

Policy implications
◦ Eliminate strains conducive to crime
◦ Alter strains to make them less conducive to crime
◦ Remove individuals from strains conducive to crime
◦ Equip individuals with the traits and skills to avoid
strains conducive to crime
◦ Alter the perceptions and goals of individuals to
reduce subjective strains

Strategies for reducing the likelihood that
individuals will respond to strains with crime
include:
◦ Improving conventional coping skills and resources
◦ Increasing social support
◦ Increasing social control
◦ Reducing associations with delinquent peers and
beliefs favorable to crime

Some support has been found for GST
◦ Delinquency is higher among individuals
experiencing a variety of negative life events and
various relational problems
◦ Strain more likely to lead to crime among
individuals with negative emotionality and low
constraint





Strain and anomie theories focus on how social
influences pressure individuals into crime
Anomie focuses on the macro-level, while
strain focuses on the micro-level
Anomie theory has seen a resurgence with
Messner and Rosenfeld’s Institutional-Anomie
Theory
Strain theory has seen a resurgence with
Agnew’s General Strain Theory
Overall, there is some empirical support for
both the anomie and strain theories