Romanticism continues into the 19th
Century
• Artistic and
intellectual movement
that originated in the
late 18th century and
stressed strong
emotion, imagination,
freedom from
classical correctness
in art forms, and
rebellion against
social conventions.
The 19th Century: Pluralism of
Style
• Napoleonic Wars 1804-1815
• The ‘Machine’ age is in full swing
with the development of the steam
engine (1769) for use on ship and
train.
• Camera takes it’s first picture,1827
• Western expansion in the United
States.
• Karl Marx Menifesto,1848
• Revolution in Europe, 1848-1852
• Darwin’s origin of Species 1859
• American Civil War, 1861-1865.
• Transcontinental Railroad, 1869
• First Movie camera patented,1891
• Queen Victoria (1819-1901) Reigns
as Queen of England for 64 years,
a period now known and the
Victorian Era.
Paintings by Tom
Lovell, (top:
Professor Lowe’s
Balloon. Middle:
The Hand Warmer.
Bottom: The Union
fleet Passing
Vicksburg.)
• Pierre Vignon:
1763-1828
•
•
Napoléon decided that a
Temple of Glory to his
Grande Armée should be
built, and Pierre-Alexandre
Vignon was commissioned
to draw up the plans. After
razing the previous efforts
from 1790, building started
on what was to be a Greek
temple. The commemorative
role of the edifice was lost
when the Arc de Triomphe
was completed in 1808, and
again the focus of the
structure became
ambiguous.
In 1814, Louis XVIII
confirmed that the
Madeleine should be a
church, but in 1837 it was
nearly selected to be the
first railway station of Paris.
Finally in 1842 it was
consecrated as a church.
Continuation of the
Neoclassical Style:
Pierre Vignon, La madeleine,
Paris,1807-1842
Antonio Canova, 1757 - 1822
• Italian Sculptor.
• Napoleon Bonaparte’s favorite sculptor, Canova moved from
Rome to Paris and became a great admirer of his, doing
several Neoclassical style portraits of the French Emperor.
Pauline
Bonaparte
Borghese as
Venus, Marble,
length cm 185.
1801
Amore &
Psyche
Marble,
cm
155x168,
1792.
Amore & Psyche was a pre
Napoleonic piece for which
he is also very famous.
Anne-Louis Girodet-Trioson
•
•
•
The Burial of Atala. 1808. Oil on canvas.
207 x 267 cm. Louvre, Paris, France.
This painting is a good
example of Romanticism.
Atala, Sworn to virginity,
falls passionately in love
with a wild Carolina savage.
Rather than betray her vow,
she commits suicide and in
this scene is buried by her
lover and a priest
(representing the church) in
the shadow of a cross.
Girodet dares to place
church and sexual passion
side by side, binding them
with the theme of death and
burial.
Hopeless love, perished
beauty, the grave, the purity
of primitive life, and the
consolation of religion are
some of the Romantic
themes Girodet
successfully showed in this
work.
Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres
(1780-1867)
•
•
•
French painter who was a leading figure in the neoclassical movement.
Grande Odalisque (Odalisque: member of a Turkish harem.) drew acid criticism
when first shown in 1814 (“She has three vertebrae too many!” “No bone, no
muscle, no life.”),
Mannerist in style, (small head, elongated torso and limbs, cool colors scheme.)
but very Romantic in the taste for Exotic themes.
Grande
Odalisque,
1814, oil,
Musée du
Louvre at
Paris.
Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres
The Apotheosis of Homer, 1827, Oil on canvas, 12’8”x16’11”, Louvre, Paris
Francisco de Goya y Lucientes
(1746-1828)
• The Third of May,
1808: The people of
Madrid attacked a
group of the mounted
Egyptian soldiers
(Mamelukes) of the
French army. The
participants and
probably the
witnesses of the
attack were savagely
punished by arrests
and executions
continuing throughout
the night and the
following morning of
3, May.
Francisco de Goya. The Third of May, 1808, 1814. Oil
on canvas, 266 x 345 cm. Museo del Prado, Madrid,
Spain.
Francisco de Goya
•
•
Charles IV (1748-1819) king of Spain 1788-1808, son and successor of
Charles III.
He was a weak monarch dominated by his wife Maria Luisa of Parma and
her lover, Manuel de Godoy, whom he appointed Prime Minister in 1792.
Charles died on Jan. 20, 1819 in Rome.
Francisco de Goya.
Charles IV and His
Family. c. 1800. Oil on
canvas. Museo del
Prado, Madrid, Spain.
Francisco de Goya
Saturn Devouring One of His
Chidren. c. 1820-23. Oil on
canvas, 146 x 83 cm. Museo del
Prado, Madrid, Spain.
• Cronus was the youngest son of
Uranus (Heaven) and Gaia (Mother
Earth), thus he belonged to the first
divine generation.
He, with the help of his mother,
overthrew Uranus, to take his place in
Heaven. As soon as he became ruler
of the world Cronus married his own
sister Rhea. Since it was foretold to
him that he would be dethroned by one
his children, he devoured them all in
turn as soon as they were born: Hestia
(Vesta), Demeter (Ceres), Hera (Juno),
Hades (Pluto), and Poseidon
(Neptune). Only Zeus (Jupiter) was
saved by his mother, Rhea, to later
fulfill the prophecy.
In Ancient Rome Cronus was identified
with Saturn.
Baron Antoine-Jean Gros
• Pupil of David.
(1771 - 1835)
• Influenced the
•
•
Bonaparte Visiting the Plague-Stricken at Jaffa on 11 March
1799. Oil on canvas. 523 x 715 cm. Louvre, Paris, France.
French
narrative
Painting style.
Utilized
Baroque
techniques of
dramatic
lighting and
perspective.
Napoleon is
here depicted
visiting a pest
house, (where
those inflicted
with the plague
are treated.)
during his
retreat from
Egypt. He is
seen as a
Christ-like
figure curing
his men by the
”Kings touch.”
Jean Louis André Théodore Géricault
(1791-1824)
The Raft of the "Medusa". 1818-1819. Oil on canvas. 490 x 720 cm. Louvre,
Paris, France.
Théodore
Géricault
•
•
The Raft of the "Medusa" caused a political scandal because of its subject matter
at the 1819 Salon in Paris.
The shipwreck of the frigate Medusa took place in June 1816 near the West African
coast. The crew left 150 passengers to their fate on a raft. When, two weeks later,
the raft was found, there were only 15 survivors, 5 of them died after rescue. The
case was silenced by the government, and when, a year later, it became public
knowledge, it caused rage and criticism of governmental negligence and corruption.
To achieve accuracy, the painter used a model of the raft and carefully studied real
corpses. In this huge canvas, about 5 x 7 meters, Géricault mixed Realism and
Romanticism. The combination of idealized figures and realistically depicted agony,
absence of ‘classical’ or ‘heroic’, gigantic size and graphic detail, aroused violent
debates between Neoclassical and Romantic artists. The painting had a seminal
influence on the further development of Romanticism.
Théodore Géricault
• In 1820 Géricault traveled
to England, where he
painted his Race for the
Derby at Epsom (Louvre).
At the time of his death,
Géricault was engaged in
painting a series of portraits
of mental patients that
demonstrate the
preoccupation of the
romantic artists with
derangement and neurosis.
Among his other works are
a number of bronze
statuettes, a superb series
of lithographs, and
hundreds of drawings and
color sketches.
The Madwoman. c. 1822-23. Oil on canvas. 72 x
58 cm. Musée des Beaux-Arts, Lyons, France.
•
The Death of
Sardanapalus, A
full-fledged work of
Delacroix’ mature
style, is a lavish,
violent, colorful
canvas in which
women, slaves,
animals, jewels, and
fabrics are
combined in a
swirling, almost
delirious
composition. The
painting portrays
the decision made
by an ancient king
to have his
possessions
(including his
women) destroyed
before he kills
himself.
Eugène Delacroix
(1798-1863)
The Death of Sardanapalus,
1827-28, oil on canvas, Musée du
Louvre, Paris.
Eugène Delacroix
Liberty Leading the People, 1830, oil on
canvas, Musée du Louvre, Paris.
• Delacroix's most
overtly romantic
and perhaps most
influential work is
Liberty Leading
the People, a
semi-allegorical
glorification of the
idea of liberty.
• This painting
confirmed the
clear division
between the
romantic style of
painting, which
emphasized color
and spirit, and the
concurrent
neoclassical style
(headed by the
French painter J.
A. D. Ingres),
which
emphasized line
and cool
detachment.
Eugène
Delacroix
•
Delacroix remained the dominant French
romantic painter throughout his life. A trip to
North Africa in 1832 provided subjects for more
than 100 sensuous canvases. In addition, he
received many government commissions for
murals and ceiling paintings. Many of his late
works, especially animal pictures, hunt scenes,
and marine subjects, are superb, but others
exhibit a certain dryness of execution and lack
of inspiration. He also illustrated various works
of William Shakespeare, the Scottish writer Sir
Walter Scott, and the German writer Johann
Wolfgang von Goethe. Delacroix's technique, in
which he applied contrasting colors with small
strokes of the brush, creating a particularly
vibrant effect, was an important influence on the
impressionists. He is also well known for his
Journals, which display considerable literary
talent and express his views on art, politics, and
life. Delacroix died in Paris on August 13, 1863.
The Massacre at Chios, detail, 1824, oil on
canvas, Musée du Louvre, Paris.
Caspar David Friedrich
(1774-1840)
• Caspar David
Friedrich was
an outstanding
19th-century
German
romantic painter
whose
awesome
landscapes and
seascapes are
not only
meticulous
observations of
nature but are
also allegories.
Abbey in an Oak Forest, 1809-10, oil on canvas,
Schloss Charlottenburg, Berlin.
Joseph Mallord William Turner
(1775-1851)
•
Joseph Mallord
William Turner
was an English
landscape
painter who is
renowned
especially for his
dynamic
treatment of
natural light
effects in land
and marine
subjects. His
work is of direct
importance in the
development of
impressionism.
The Slave Ship, 1840; Oil on canvas, 90.8 x 122.6 cm; Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
Oil Painting: From the studio to the
Great outdoors.
• During the early 19th century,
better uniformity of paints were
developed as well as a more
convenient way to carry them, in
tin/lead tubes, (developed for
food in the Napoleonic Wars.)
These paints were mass
produced and artists did not need
to mix their own upon demand.
This meant that the artist could
take his studio in a relatively
small box anywhere, and paint in
‘Plein Air’ or on site with natural
light. The disadvantage was the
changing time and weather. So
artists began to paint quickly and
more spontaneously.
•
•
•
•
Cole is an American painter, one of
the founders of Romantic landscape
painting in the New World. He was
born into an Anglo-American family in
England in 1801. The family returned
to the United States in 1818; until then
young. In the USA, he entered the
Philadelphia Academy of Art in 1823.
Later he settled in the Catskills on the
Hudson and became a co-founder of
the so-called Hudson River School,
which established Romantic
landscape painting in America. Direct,
spontaneous landscapes painted in
the wilderness of the Catskill
Mountains brought rapid recognition
and attracted New York buyers.
In 1829 and 1841-1842 Cole traveled
to Europe, he visited England,
Switzerland and Italy, studying in
particular the landscapes of European
masters. On his return, having also
absorbed philosophical and literary
ideas, Cole introduced a new type of
painting to America: the symbolic,
moral landscape, as represented by
the series on the themes of The
Course of Empire.
These are fantastic, symbolic scenes
full of unusual effects of grandiose
space and theatrical contrasts of light.
Not satisfied with great American
nature any longer, Cole increases
fantastic and mystical character by
introducing Biblical and antique
subjects. His late pictures do not
attain the fine quality of his earlier
atmospheric landscapes, they are
rough and primitive, but are supposed
to stun spectators with extremely
pretentious surrealism.
Thomas Cole
(1801-1848)
View from Mount Holyoke, Northampton,
Massachusetts, after a Thunderstorm (the Oxbow).
1836. Oil on canvas. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New
York, USA.
•
John Constable
(1776 - 1837)
John Constable was one of the major
European landscape artists of the XIX
century, whose art was admired by
Delacroix and Gericault and influenced
the masters of Barbizon and even the
Impressionists, although he did not
achieved much fame during his lifetime in
England, his own country.
Constable believed
the actual study of
nature was more
important than any
artistic model. He
refused to "learn the
truth second-hand".
To a greater degree
than any other artist
before him,
Constable based his
paintings on
precisely drawn
sketches made
directly from nature.
Landscape: Noon (The Hay-Wain). 1821. Oil on canvas. National Gallery, London, UK
•
•
•
Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot was
a renowned French painterespecially of landscapes, who
worked in romantic and realistic
styles and was a forerunner of
impressionistic style.
From 1828 until his death, Corot
lived in Paris. During the warm
months he traveled throughout
Europe, painting small oil
sketches that, like those of his
friends in the Barbizon School of
artists, are among the first
French landscapes to be painted
outdoors. The sketches are
marked by careful structure and
the sense of natural light. He
worked during winter months in
his studio, producing large salon
pieces with biblical or historical
subjects. By 1845, after
receiving critical acclaim, Corot
began to sell his work. His
landscapes thereafter became
imaginary creations bathed in a
filmy romantic atmosphere
achieved by silvery tones and
soft brushstrokes.
He also painted a number of
portraits and figure studies. He
was generous to his friends and
pupils with both time and money,
earning the title père (“father”)
Corot. He died in Paris on
February 22, 1875.
Camille Corot
(1796-1875)
The Bridge at Nantes, Musée du Louvre at
Paris
Couture, Thomas (French, 1815-1879)
Romans of the Decadence, 1847, Musée d'Orsay at Paris.
Photography: Nicéphore Niépce
• In 1827,Niepce developed the
process of taking a Photo
Obscura ( right) and using what is
essentially polished silver and
letting it interact with iodine
vapors on the bitumen image he
obtained genuine photographs in
black and white on a pewter plate.
• First image seen at right took 8
hours of exposure in direct
sunlight.
• By 1837, the process had been
perfected and utilized by Victorian
photographers working in studios.
Louis-Jacques Mandé
Daguerre, Still life in
Studio, 1837
Eugène Durieu
(with Eugène
Delacriox) Draped
Model (back
view), 1854
Photography
began a system for recording
immediate visual images
which was either accepted by
artists and used to aid them in
their craft or blatantly rejected.
Even today, some people feel
that photography is a recorder
and not an artistic medium.
Josiah J. Hawes (with Alabert
S. Southworth. Early
Operation Under Ether,
Massachusetts Hospital.
1847
Mathew B. Brady, Dead in
the Hole, 1861-1865
Paul Delaroche,
(French Painter, 1797-1856)
• This painting was
completed a year
before Delaroche's
death in 1856. It
depicts the death of
a young Christian
martyr in the 3rd
century AD during
the reign of the
Roman Emperor
Diocletian.
The Young Martyr, 1855, Oil on canvas.
68 “x Louvre, Paris
•
Jean-Leon Gerome (18241904). Gerome was a
French painter and
sculptor. He was a pupil
of Paul Delaroche and
inherited his highly
finished academic style.
Gerome traveled widely in
Turkey, Egypt and North
Africa. A sculptor as well
as a painter, his female
figures have the same
classical precision of
Ingres, but are in much
more realistic poses.
Thumbs Down! (Gladiator), 1872,
Oil on canvas, 39 1/2” X 58 1/2”,
Phoenix Art Museum.
Jean-Léon Gérôme,
(1824-1904)
Pygmalian and
Galatea,
Honoré Daumier
(1808-1879)
•
•
Transnonain Street
portrays a dramatic
event of one of the
insurrections of April
1834, in which a civil
guard was shot by a
sniper. The shot
came from a workers’
housing block, the
remaining guards
immediately stormed
the building and
massacred all of the
inhabitants.
This lithography has
become very rare
because hundreds of
its copies were
destroyed.
Transnonain Street. 1834. Lithography. Association of the Lovers of Honoré Daumier.
Honoré Daumier (1808-1879)
• Daumier’s
paintings
are closer
to the art of
the 20th
century
than to his
own: they
are sketchlike and
very
expressive.
The Third-Class Carriage. 1860-63. Oil on canvas. The
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, USA.
Gustave Courbet, (1819-1877)
• (Jean Désiré) Gustave Courbet was an influential
and prolific French painter, who, with his
compatriots Honore Daumier and Jean Francois
Millet, founded the mid-19th-century art
movement called realism.
A Burial at Ornans, 1849-50, Oil on canvas, Musée d'Orsay, Paris.
Gustave Courbet
•
Bonjour Monsieur Courbet, 1854, Musée Fabre, Montpellier.
As radical in politics as he
was in painting, Courbet was
placed in charge of all art
museums under the
revolutionary 1871 Commune
of Paris and saved the city's
collections from looting mobs.
Following the fall of the
Commune, however, Courbet
was accused of allowing the
destruction of Napoleon's
triumphal column in the Place
Vendôme; he was imprisoned
and condemned to pay for its
reconstruction. He fled to
Vevey, Switzerland, in 1873,
where he continued to paint
until his death on December
31, 1877.
Thomas Eakins (1844-1916)
Self-Portrait, 1902, oil on
canvas, National Academy of
Design, New York.
• Thomas Eakins was an
American realist painterone of the foremost of the
19th century. Working
independently of
contemporary European
styles, he was the first
major artist after the
American Civil War (18611865) to produce a
profound and powerful
body of work drawn directly
from the experience of
American life.
The Gross Clinic, 1875, Oil on
canvas, 8’ x 6’6”.
Jefferson Medical College,
Thomas Jefferson University,
Philadelphia.
John Singer Sargent (1856-1925)
• John Singer
Sargent was
an American
painter who
is known for
his
glamorous
portraits of
eminent or
socially
prominent
people of the
period.
The Daughters of Edward Darley Boit, 1882, Oil on canvas, 7’3” x 7’3”.
Courtesy Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
John Singer Sargent
Self-Portrait,
1907, oil on
canvas, Galleria
degli Uffizi,
Florence
• Virginie was painted by
different artists. John
Sargent started work on his
portrait of her when she
was twenty three years old.
The portrait was exhibited
at the Spring Paris Salon in
1884 and aroused severe
criticism.
• One commentator noted:
“The storm that swirled
around the picture gathered
force from a basic
confusion. The fierce
reaction was caused
primarily by the subject,
and the painting was used
as evidence. People were
jeering at Madame
Gautreau herself.
Madame X (Madame Pierre Gautreau). 1884. Oil on canvas.
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, USA.
Winslow Homer
(1836-1910)
•
•
•
Breezing Up, 1876, oil on canvas, National Gallery of Art
at Washington D.C.
Winslow Homer was an
American naturalist painter
who is often considered, along
with Thomas Eakins, one of
the greatest American 19thcentury artists.
Homer was almost entirely
self-taught as a painter. A stay
in England from 1881 to 1882,
during which Homer lived in a
fishing village, led to a
permanent change in his
subject matter. Thereafter he
concentrated on large-scale
scenes of nature, particularly
scenes of the sea, of its
fishermen, and of their
families.
A stay in England from 1881
to 1882, during which Homer
lived in a fishing village, led to
a permanent change in his
subject matter. Thereafter he
concentrated on large-scale
scenes of nature, particularly
scenes of the sea, of its
fishermen, and of their
families.
Sir John Everett Millais (1829-1896)
•
•
Ophelia, 1851-52, Tate Gallery, London.
Sir John Everett
Millais was an
English painter born
in Southampton and
educated in art at the
Royal Academy of
Arts in London.
Beginning in the early
1870s, he created
many portraits of
British personalities,
famous in his time.
He was a careful
artist who paid strict
attention to detail,
unusual composition,
and clarity. In much
of his later work he
succumbed to the
Victorian taste for
sentiment and
anecdotal art.
Albert Bierstadt (1830-1902)
•
Bierstadt joined a surveying expedition to the western United States
in 1858 after studying painting in Germany. The impressions and
sketches made on this trip were the basis of many of his paintings.
Looking Down the Yosemite Valley, California, 1865, oil on canvas,
Birmingham Museum of Art.
Pre-Raphaelite movement
• The term Pre-Raphaelite, which refers to both art and literature, is confusing
because there were essentially two different and almost opposed
movements, the second of which grew out of the first. The term itself
originated in relation to the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, an influential group
of mid-nineteenth-century avante garde painters associated with Ruskin who
had great effect upon British, American, and European art. Those poets who
had some connection with these artists and whose work presumably shares
the characteristics of their art include Dante Gabriel Rossetti, Christina
Rossetti, George Meredith, William Morris, and Algernon Charles
Swinburne.
• The second form of Pre-Raphaelitism, which grows out of the first under the
direction of D.G. Rossetti, is Aesthetic Pre-Raphaelitism, and it in turn
produced the Arts and Crafts Movement, modern functional design, and the
Aesthetes and Decadents. Rossetti and his follower Edward Burne-Jones
(1833-1898) emphasized themes of eroticized medievalism (or medievalized
eroticism) and pictorial techniques that produced moody atmosphere. This
form of Pre-Raphaelitism has most relevance to poetry; for although the
earlier combination of a realistic style with elaborate symbolism appears in a
few poems, particularly those of the Rossettis, this second stage finally had
the most influence upon literature. All the poets associated with PreRaphaelitism draw upon the poetic continuum that descends from Spenser
through Keats and Tennyson -- one that emphasizes lush vowel sounds,
sensuous description, and subjective psychological states.
Sir Edward BurneJones
(1833-1898)
• Edward Burne-Jones was one of the most
important members of the second phase of PreRaphaelitism in the 19th century. He was a firm
supporter of Pre-Raphaelite ideals and a close
friend of Rossetti, whom he had first met in 1857
when he had helped him to decorate the walls of
the Oxford Union Debating Society with frescos.
Under Rossetti's influence he painted a number
of highly romantic subjects taken from the
Arthurian legends, as well as myths and scenes
from the Bible.
King Cophetua and the Beggar Maid
1884, Oil on canvas.290 x 136 cm
Tate Britain, London, England
William-Adolphe
Bouguereau
(1825-1905)
•
Adolphe William Bouguereau, had a long,
successful career as an academic painter,
exhibiting in the annual Paris Salons for
more than 50 years. His paintings of
religious, mythological, and genre subjects
were carefully composed and painstakingly
finished. Thus he opposed the admission of
works by the impressionists to the Salon,
because he believed that their paintings
were no more than unfinished sketches.
After a period of neglect following his death,
Bouguereau's paintings were returned to
view as part of a renewed interest in and
reappraisal of academic painting and of
Ecole des Beaux-Arts works in general. A
major retrospective exhibition opened in
Paris and was seen in Montreal and
Hartford, Conn., in 1984.
Nymphs & Satyr, 1873, oil on canvas,
Sterling & Francine Clark Art Institute,
Williamstown, Massachusetts.
Jules Bastien-Lepage (1848-1884)
• After the province of
Lorraine was lost to
Germany following
the Franco-Prussian
War in 1871,
Frenchmen saw in
Joan of Arc a new and
powerful symbol. In
1875 Bastien-Lepage,
a native of Lorraine,
began to make
studies for a picture of
her. In the present
painting, exhibited in
the Salon of 1880,
Joan is shown
receiving her
revelation in her
parents' garden.
Behind her are Saints
Michael, Margaret,
and Catherine.
Joan of Arc, 1880. Oil on canvas, 8’4” x 9’2”. The
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
Édouard Manet (1832-1883)
Le Déjeuner sur
l'Herbe (The
Picnic), 1863. Oil on
canvas, 7’ x 8’10”.
Musée d’Orcay,
Paris.
•
Manet's canvas, portraying a woodland picnic
that included a seated female nude attended by
two fully dressed young men, attracted
immediate and wide attention, but was bitterly
attacked by the critics. Hailed by young painters
as their leader, Manet became the central figure
in the dispute between the academic and
rebellious art factions of his time.
In 1865 he exhibited his Olympia (1863, Musée d'Orsay), a nude
based on a Venus by Titian, which aroused storms of protest in
academic circles because of its unorthodox realism.
Olympia, 1863,
oil on canvas,
Musée d'Orsay,
Paris.
Édouard Manet, (1832-1883)
•
In 1882 one of his
finest pictures, The
Bar at the FoliesBergère (Courtauld
Institute and
Galleries, London),
was exhibited at the
Salon, and an old
friend, who was then
minister of fine arts,
obtained the Legion
of Honor for the artist.
Manet died in Paris
on April 30, 1883. He
left, besides many
watercolors and
pastels, 420 oil
paintings.
A Bar at the Folies-Bergère. 1882. Oil on canvas.
Courtauld Institute Galleries, London
Edouard
Manet
(1832-1883)
•
Boating, 1874,
Metropolitan Museum of
Art, New York.
The Railway. 1873. Oil on
canvas. The National
Gallery of Art, Washington,
DC, USA.
The Fifer, 1866, oil
on canvas, Musée
d'Orsay, Paris.