the renaissance
advertisement
THE RENAISSANCE ANALZYE THE INFLUENCE OF HUMANISM ON THE VISUAL ARTS IN THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE TO WHAT EXTENT DID WOMEN PARTICIPATE IN THE RENAISSANCE DISCUSS HOW RENAISSANCE IDEAS ARE EXPRESSED IN THE ITALIAN ART OF THE PEROID CONTRAST WITH LATE MIDDLE AGES • MEDIEVAL – – – – – – – Religion Dominates Man should be well versed in one subject Latin Handwritten Gothic Divorce—No Marriage – economic • RENAISSANCE – – – – – – – – – – – Humanism Virtu New Monarchs Vernacular Individual Greek and Roman Classics Bronze Secular Merchants Printing Press Marriages -- Romance ITALIAN RENAISSANCE • Florence (Quattrocentro) – Massive Patronage (Medici Family) – Center of Renaissance in 14th and 15th Centuries – Medici’s – Banking • Rome (Cinquecento or High Renaissance) – Renaissance Popes – Secular – Pope Alexander VI – St. Peter’s Cathedral • Painting – Perspective – 3-D effects – Chiaroscuro – Dark and light colors to create illusion of depth • Sculpture – Free standing to be seen in the round – Glorified body (nude) – Greek and Roman influence • Architecture – Used Greek temple, columns, Roman arches and domes – Simplicity and balance • Lorenzo Ghiberti – Bronze doors at Florence Baptistry • Donatello – Bronze statue of David – Free standing and in the nude • Sandro Botticelli – Birth of Venus – Classical Mythology • Leonardo da Vinci – Renaissance Man – Mona Lisa and Last Supper • Raphael – School of Athens • Michelangelo – – – – Statue of David glorifies human body Pieta is most perfect marble statue Dome of St. Peter’s Cathedral Sistine Chapel • Mannerism – Reaction against Renaissance ideals of balance, symmetry, simplicity and realistic use of color – Used unnatural colors while shapes were elongated or exaggerated • El Greco (Spain) – Greatest of the Mannerists – Toledo uses elongated figures and weird pigments ITALIAN HUMANISM • Revival of antiquity (Greece and Rome) • Virtu – Excelling in all of one’s pursuits • Civic Humanism – Education should prepare leaders to be active in civic affairs • Petrarch – Father of Humanism – Sonnets to Laura – One of the Big 3 (Dante and Boccacio) • Dante – Divine Comedy – Vernacular • Boccacio – Decameron – Social Behavior of Youth during Black Plague (Sex) • Lorenzo Valla – Expert on Latin Language – On the False Donation of Constantine proved land given to Church was based on fraud – Latin Vulgate errors discovered • Pico della Mirandola – Oration on the Dignity of Man – Humans have potential for greatness – Free will • Baldassare Castiglione – The Book of the Courtier – True Renaissance Man has physical and intellectual ability living an active life NORTHERN RENAISSANCE • Christian Humanism – Emphasis on early Church Writings – How to improve society and reform the Church – Led to criticisms of the Church • Erasmus – Master of the Greek Language – In Praise of Folly wanted to reform the Church – Satirized the immorality and hypocrisy of the Church – Influenced Martin Luther • Sir Thomas More – Utopia – Accumulation of property was root cause of society’s ills • William Shakespeare • Miquel Cervantes • Flemish Style of Art – – – – More detail Oil Paints Preoccupied with death Ordinary People • Jan Van Eyck – Arnolfini and His Wife • Peter Brueghel – Focused on Ordinary People – Peasant Dance, Peasant Wedding, etc. • Hans Holbein – Premier Portrait Painter – Henry VIII • Fugger Family – Patron of Northern Renaissance – Banking RENAISSANCE WOMEN • Wealthy Women – – – – Access to Education Ornaments to their husbands Women were to be pleasing to the man Sexual Double standard • Christine de Pisan – Chronicled the accomplishments of great women in history – Women’s survival guide • Isabella d’Este – Set example to NOT be an ornament – Patron of the arts – Founded school for young women • Marriage – – – – Based on economic considerations Dowries Earlier marriages Foundling Hospitals • Divorce – Very limited • Important Rulers – – – – Isabella I of Spain Mary Tudor of England Elizabeth I of England Catherine de Medicis of France NEW MONARCHS Reduced the power of the Nobles Hired Mercenary armies Reduced the power of the clergy Created efficient bureaucracies Increased power of bourgeoisie Towns gained power FRANCE • Louis XI the Spider King – – – – – Used Diplomacy Large Royal army Destroyed Nobles Increased Taxes Encouraged economic growth (mercantilism) • Francis I – Concordat of Bologna – Monarch appoints Bishops (Gallican Church) – Taille – Tax on all property and land ENGLAND • War of the Roses – Houses of York vs. Lancaster – War between Nobles – Henry VII removes Richard III and starts the Tudor Dynasty • Henry VII – Reduced power of Nobles thru Star Chamber – Used diplomacy SPAIN • Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile – – – – – Unify Spain Catholic Reconquista Columbus Spanish Inquisition Holy Roman Empire • The Hapsburg Empire – Consisted of 300 autonomous German States – Emperor did not have centralized control – The Golden Bull • Charles V – – – – Most powerful ruler in 16th century Austrian Hapsburg and Spanish Empire Sacked Rome ending Renaissance Tried to stop the Protestant Reformation AGE OF EXPLORATION DESCRIBE AND ANALYZE HOW OVERSEAS EXPANSION BY EUROPEAN STATES AFFECTED GLOBAL TRADE AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS FROM 1600 TO 1715 Rise in New Monarchs led to competition Renaissance led more knowledge and adventure ADVANCES IN LEARNING & TECHNOLOGY • • • • • • • • Cartography Astronomy Compass Quadrant – latitude Astrolabe – latitude Caravel Rudder Weapons PORTUGAL • • • • All water route to Asia Prince Henry the Navigator Vasco da Gama Brazil SPANISH EXPLORATION • • • • • • • Gold, Glory and the Gospel Columbus Bartolomew de las Casas Amerigo Vespucci Treaty of Tordesillas Ferdinand Magellan Conquistadores OLD IMPERIALISM • • • • • • Mercantilism Encomienda System Mestizos Creoles Jesuits Asiento COMMERCIAL REVOLUTION • Increased in population leads to more consumers • Price revolution – – – – Long slow upward trend in prices Increase in food prices Increase in volume of money Increase in supply of goods • Rise in capitalism led by bourgeoisie • Banking – – – – Fuggers in Germany Medicis in Italy Antwerp (16th Century) Amsterdam (17th Century) • Hanseatic League – German states that controlled trade • Joint-Stock Companies – Investors pooled resources for common purpose – Virginia • New Industries and Goods – Textiles, Mining, Printing, Shipbuilding, Weapons – Sugar (most expensive), rice and tea • Mercantilism – – – – Nations sought self-sufficiency Export more than import Bullionism – Acquire Gold Trade’s goal was keep gold from going to competing company PRICE REVOLUTION • • • • The emergence of nation states led to taxation Exploration created empires Prices rose gradually in the 16th century More population demanded more goods which increased prices • Influx of gold for the New World • Inflation • Bourgeoisie LIFE IN 16th & 17th CENTURIES Countryside Lords/Nobles at the top Peasants owned land Landless workers Towns Bourgeoisie were the wealthiest Skilled craftsman belonged to guilds Low-skilled jobs for low wages THE FAMILY • Nuclear • Age of marriage higher (economics) – Dowries – Permission needed • Children – Average number of kids 6 – Post 1750 an increase in illegitimate births • Women – Marriage was an escaped from hard life of work • Child Care – – – – – Poor women breast fed Wealthier women used wet nurses Foundling Hospitals Spare the rod and spoil the child Girls were sent to the city • Education – Elementary education for boys and girls – Religious instruction – Prussia had compulsory education • Life Expectancy – – – – – – – – Increase from 25-35 No plague Sanitation Vaccinations Clothing Better food Potato Meat, fish and alcohol • Medical – Smallpox – Edward Jenner WITCH HUNTS • • • • • • • Belief in Magic Church Women Scientific Revolution Medicine Trials Reformation PROTESTANT REFORMATION CAUSES • Crisis in the Church – Babylonian Captivity – Great Schism – Concilliar Movement • Give Church Councils more power than Pope (Rejected) • Corruption in the Church – – – – – Simony Pluralism Absenteeism Nepotism Sale of Indulgences – Moral decline • Pope Alexander VI • 20% of priests had concubines – Clerical Ignorance • John Wyclif – Bible, Personal Communion & fewer sacraments – Lollards – John Hus • Thomas a Kempis – Brethren of the Common Life – Live a simple life and make religion personal • Erasmus – In Praise of Folly – Criticized corruption in the church and hypocrisy • Renaissance Humanism – Criticized Church and validity of the Vulgate – Emphasized secularism and individualism, not religion MARTIN LUTHER • Johann Tetzel – Authorized to sale indulgences by Pope Leo X (St. Peter’s) • 95 Theses – Wittenberg – Criticized the sale of indulgences • Debate with Johann Ecks – Denied infallibility of the pope and Church councils • Theology of Reform – – – – – – Salvation by Faith alone Bible is sole authority Only 2 sacraments Priesthood of all believers Encouraged German princes to reform the church Rejected celibacy (Marriage) • Diet of Worms – Charles V demands Luther recant – “Here I stand” • Confessions of Augsburg (Lutheranism) • Spread – Northern German states – Denmark and Sweden • Peasant’s War – Twelve Articles demanded and end to serfdom and feudalism – Inspired by Luther – Luther supported German princes • Schmalkalden League – Lutheran Princes unite against Charles V • Peace of Augsburg (1555) – Cuius regio, eius religio – German princes could choose Lutheranism or Catholicism for their region CALVINISM • Institutes of the Christian Religion – Calvin’s foundational work • • • • Predestination The Elect Geneva = Theocracy Protestant Work Ethic – Hard work, results in financial success because God likes you • Presbyterians – John Knox – Scotland • Huguenots – French Calvinists – Nobles • Dutch Reformed Church – Set the stage for revolt against Philip II • Puritans – England – America ENGLAND • Henry VIII – Defense of the Seven Sacraments – Defender of the Faith • Marriages – Catherine of Aragon – Anne Boleyn • Church of England (Anglican Church) – Pope refuses annulment (Charles V) – Henry breaks away (Thomas Cranmer) • Act of Supremacy (1534) – King head of the Church – Confiscated Church lands – Monasteries closed down • Act of Succession (1534) – Oath of loyalty – Thomas More executed • Pilgrimage of Grace – Opposition to Henry’s Reformation • Statute of Six Articles (1539) – Maintained most of Catholic doctrines • Edward VI – Adopted Calvinism – Clergy could marry and removed iconic images – Salvation by faith alone and 2 sacraments • Mary Tudor – – – – Returned England to Catholicism Marian Exiles = Protestants fleeing Bloody Mary Married to Philip II of Spain • Elizabeth I – Daughter of Anne Boleyn who developed Protestantism in England – Politique between Anglicans and Puritans • Elizabethan Settlement – – – – – Book of Common Prayer Catholicism remained but in private English services Clergy not allowed to marry Required church services • Thirty-Nine Articles (1563) – Defined the creed of the Anglican Church • Mary Stuart OTHERS • Anabaptists – No connection to any state – Refused to take oaths, pay taxes or serve in the military – Rejected the Trinity – Polygamy – Burned books – Munster = Anabaptists leaders executed • Quakers • Ulrich Zwingli – 1st leader of the Swiss Reformation (Zurich) – Eucharist was only symbolic – Colloquy of Marburg • Split with Luther over Eucharist WOMEN • Luther believed women should be home taking care of the children • Calvin believed in maintaining the moral order • Suppressed common law marriages • Marriage should emphasize love • Bible reading increased women’s literacy • Protestant Women lost opportunities in church services, property ownership and legal transactions • Catholic women had church opportunities in religious orders • Angela Merci founded the Ursuline Order – Provide education and religious training – Combat heresy through education • Teresa de Avila – Believed in a direct relationship with God through prayer and contemplation CATHOLIC REFORMATION CAUSES • Pope Paul III wanted to improve Church through discipline and existing doctrines • Response to Protestant gains • Response to critics in the Church that abuses had to be reformed COUNCIL OF TRENT 1545 - 1563 • • • • • • Scripture, traditions and writings are equal Salvation by faith and “good works” All 7 sacraments valid (transubstantiation) Monasteries, Celibacy and Purgatory Index of Forbidden Books Ended Abuses – Sale of Indulgences – Sale of Church offices – Seminaries NEW RELIGIOUS ORDERS • Ignatius Loyola – Organized Jesuits in military fashion – Spiritual Exercises was guidebook for Jesuits • Jesuits – Reform the Church through education – Spread the Gospel to pagans – Fight Protestantism • Inquisitions – Persecution of Spanish Jews and Moors – Accused Jews of killing Christ • Catholic Reformation brought Southern Germany and Easter Europe back to the faith • Jesuit schools best in Europe BAROQUE ART • Demonstrates the glory and power of the Catholic Church • Emotionalism and Color • Emphasized grandeur, emotion and unity surrounding a certain theme • Bernini – Architecture and Sculpture – The Ecstasy of St. Teresa • Carvaggio – Highly emotional – Biblical scenes • Peter Paul Reubens – Christian subjects, Roman goddesses and nudes RELIGIOUS WARS 1559 - 1648 PHILIP II • Escorial – Wanted to re-impose Catholicism – Palace to symbolize his commitment to Catholicism • Battle of Lepanto – War against the Turks – Defeated Turkish navy – Ended Ottoman threat in Mediterranean • The Dutch Revolt (Netherlands) – William I led 17 provinces against Spanish Inquisition – United Provinces of the Netherlands formed was blow to Philip II – Spanish Netherlands remained Catholic – Amsterdam becomes commercial capital of the world SPAIN VS. ENGLAND • Queen Mary Tudor tried to re-impose Catholicism in England • Queen Elizabeth I reversed Mary’s decisions with the Elizabethan Settlement • Elizabeth help the Protestant Netherlands • Spain wanted revenge for the Dutch Revolt and Mary Stuart • Spanish Armada – Spanish navy destroyed – England becomes the world’s naval power – Spain declines FRENCH CIVIL WARS • Catherine de Medicis dominated • Nobles became Huguenots • France was devided – Bourbons = Huguenots – Guise = Ultra-Catholic – Valois = Catholic ruling family • St. Bartholomew Day Massacre (1572) – Marriage between Valois princess and leader of Huguenots (Henry of Navarre) – Catherine de Medici orders the massacre of the Calvinists • War of the Three Henry’s – Civil War among the 3 groups • Henry IV (Henry Navarre) – Ended the War of the Three Henry’s – Politique – “Paris is worth a Mass” • Edict of Nantes – – – – Religious toleration granted to Huguenots Private worship allowed Allowed access to education and jobs Huguenots kept 200 fortified towns creating a state within a state THIRTY YEARS WAR 1618 - 1648 • Defenestration of Prague – Triggers war 1st phase of war in Bohemia – Restrictions placed on Protestants • Edict of Restitution – Declaration by HRE that all church territory was to restored to Catholic Church repealing the Peace of Augsburg • Gustavus Adolphus – Swedish King pushed Catholic forces back to Bohemia – Ended Hapsburgs dream of reuniting Germany as Catholic • Cardinal Richelieu – In the 4th phase Richelieu allies France (C) with the Protestant forces to defeat the Hapsburgs (C) – This was a political decision, not religious – Wanted to weaken the Hapsburg Empire • Treaty of Westphalia – – – – – – Ended 30 Years War Renewal of Peace of Augsburg adding Calvinism Netherlands and Switzerland gains independence 300+ German states gain sovereignty France and Brandenburg (Prussia) gain territory The Hapsburgs are divided: Spain and Austria • Results – – – – Germany physically devastated Germany remains divided politically and religiously Ended religious wars France becomes dominant power AGE OF ABSOLUTISM PHILOSOPHY • Jean Bodin – Only Absolutism could provide order and force • Thomas Hobbes – Humans are poor, nasty and brutish – Favored Enlightened despots • Bishop Jacques Bossuet – Advocated Divine Rights of Kings – Believed King was placed on the throne by God FRANCE • France was divided into three Estates – 1st Estate = Clergy – 2nd Estate = Nobles – 3rd Estate = Bourgeoisie, Urban workers & peasants (95%) • Hierarchy was based on rank and privilege • Agrarian • Cultural center HENRY IV • 1st King of the Bourbons • Nobility – Nobility of the Sword – Nobility of the Robe = New nobles who purchased title from the King • Duke of Sully – – – – Mercantilism Encouraged industry Reduced debt Improved transportation system (Roads and Canals) LOUIS XIII • Cardinal Richelieu • Intendant System – Weakens nobility – Replaces local officials with civil servants (Intendants) – Loyal to the King • Subdues Huguenots – Removes walls and armies • Thirty Years War LOUIS XIV • “L’etat, c’est moi” = I am the State • The Sun King • Cardinal Mazarin – Ruled France while Louis XIV was a child – Angered the Fronde (Nobles) • Fronde – Revolted during Louis XIV childhood – Louis determined to control Nobles from then on • Corvee = Forced labor • Versailles – Most impressive palace (Baroque) – Cost 60% of annual budget – Controlled Noblity • Edict of Fountainbleau – Revoked Edict of Nantes – Hugenots fled France • Jean Baptiste Colbert – – – – – Financial Minister (Mercantilism) Bullionism Transportation system improved Trade increased Industrial power • War of Devolution – Louis XIV invaded Spanish Netherlands – Wanted throne for this wife – Gets Alsace • War of the League of Augsburg – William of Orange (England) joins the League to block France – Starts Anglo-French rivalry • War of Spanish Succession – Charles II of Spain gives throne to grandson of Louis XIV – Grand Alliance opposes France – Treaty of Utrecht • • • • • • • Maintains balance of power Ends Louis XIV expansionism Britain gets Asiento and Gibraltar Prussian King recognized Spanish and Bourbon dynasties cannot be united Destroys French economy England grows in power SPAIN • • • • • • • Spain declines in 17th Century Economy hurt by loss of Jews and Moors Spanish trade cut 60% by Brits and Dutch Spanish treasury is bankrupt Taxes hurt the peasants Inflation from the price revolution hurt industries Military defeats – – – – Spanish Armada Thirty Years War Treaty of Pyrenees War of Spanish Succession EASTERN VS. WESTERN • WESTERN ABSOLUTISM – – – – – – – Divine Right of Kings Absolute Monarchs not subordinate to Assemblies Nobility brought under control Government officials appointed by King Control of Catholic Church Secret police Early Totalitarianism • EASTERN ABSOLUTISM – Based on a powerful nobility, weak middle class and an oppressed peasantry composed of serfs – Kings imposed taxes without consent of their subjects – Maintained standing armies SERFDOM • Serfdom strong in Eastern Europe • Drop in population created labor shortages (Black Death) • Nobles demanded kings and princes to restrict movement of peasants • Heavy labor obligations on serfs and non-serfs such as the robot that required 3-4 days a month of work for the noble • Hereditary serfdom established • Eastern nobles power allowed them to keep their serfs AUSTRIAN EMPIRE • The ruler of Austria = Hapsburgs • Austrian Hapsburgs controlled Naples, Milan, Austrian Netherlands (Belgium), and Hungary • Hungary was the largest part of the dominion whose dominant group were the Magyars • It was a multinational empire with Germans, Italians, Czechs, Hungarians, Serbians, Romanians, etc included • The siege of Vienna repelled the Turks in 1683 ending the Ottoman influence in Central Europe • Emperor Charles VI issued the Pragmatic Sanction (1713) that the empire is never to be divided and passed to his daughter Maria Theresa in 1740. PRUSSIA • Hohenzollerns were the ruling family • Marriages allowed the Hohenzollerns to gain territory • Frederick William the Great Elector (1640-88) – Religious toleration granted to Jews and Catholics – Created the most efficient army in Europe – Junkers were the backbone of the Prussian Military officers (Nobles) • Frederick I – 1st King of Prussia – Encouraged higher education – Fought two wars with Louis XIV to maintain balance of power • Frederick William I – – – – – – Made Prussia the Sparta of the North Doubled the size of the military 80% of revenue went to the military Army was seen as a deterence Established schools for peasant children Civil service advancement based on merit RUSSIA • Ivan III (The Great) – Ended Mongol domination of Muscovy – Established Moscow as Third Rome for the Eastern Orthodox Church – The Czar (Tsar) claimed divine right absolute power – Fought with the Boyars (nobles) for power • Ivan IV (The Terrible) – – – – Increased the size of Russia Cossacks were a problem Executed Nobles who opposed him Increased serfdom – Period of famine, wars and power struggles followed Ivan IV known as the Time of Troubles • Cossacks • Sweden and Poland • Michael Romanov – Selected by the Boyars to be the new Czar – Expanded empire to the Pacific Ocean – The Cossack revolts led to more restrictions on the serfs – Old Believers opposed the influx of Western European religious groups into Russia – Began Westernizing Russia • Peter the Great (1682-1725) – The revolt of the Strelski was defeated by Peter – Expanded the army by requiring serfs to serve 25 year enlistments • 75% of budget • Royal military academies – The Great Northern War against Sweden gave Russia Latvia and Estonia that will become is Window on the West in the Baltic Sea – He will import western technology and experts to Westernize Russia – Peter ruled by decree – The Table of Ranks set education standards for civil servants – Orthodox Church became a part of the government under his control – The Winter Palace in St. Petersburg was to model Versailles OTTOMAN EMPIRE • Could not maintain possessions in the Balkans and Central Europe because of Russian and Austrian advances • Suleiman the Magnificent nearly conquered ½ of Eastern Europe • The Janissary corps were Christian slaves selected to loyal servants in the Ottoman bureaucracy • As Muslim religious leaders gained influence they rejected European ideas speeding up its decline as the Sick Man of Europe POLAND • Liberum veto required a unanimous vote in the Polish parliament to make changes • Russia and Prussia encouraged nobles to invoke liberum veto to weaken Poland • Poland carved up by Russia, Austria and Prussia by 1800. CONSTITUTIONALISM STUART ENGLAND • James I – Believed in divine right of kings • “No bishop, No King” – Dissolved Parliament over taxes – Guy Fawkes Plot – King James Bible • Charles I – Divine Right of Kings – Wanted to rule without Parliament – Taxes and Quartering of troops • Petition of Right (1628) – – – – – – – Parliament wanted basic legal rights in return for taxes Only Parliament can levy taxes No imprisonment without due process of law Habeas corpus No quartering of troops No martial law during peacetime King agrees to get taxes • Dissolves Parliament (1629) – – – – Parliament refuses to raise taxes Rules without Parliament Raises money using Medieval forms of taxation Ship Money • Archbishop Laud – Drives Puritans out of Church of England • The Short Parliament (1640) – Scottish revolt over English Prayer Book – Charles needed taxes but is disbanded over not acceptance of Petition of Right • The Long Parliament (1640-1648) – – – – – Scottish victory Parliament cannot be dissolved Archbishop Laud executed Star Chamber abolished Common law over Royal law OLIVER CROMWELL • Charles tries to arrest Puritan leaders in Parliament starting the English Civil War • Cavaliers – Supporters of the King (Anglican Church) – Old Nobility – Irish Catholics • Roundheads – – – – Puritans and Presbyterians London Businessmen Scotland • Oliver Cromwell – Commander of Roundheads New Model Army – Defeated Charles I at Nasby – Stops Scottish invasion • Pride’s Purge – New Model Army removes non-Puritans from Parliament – Rump Parliament • Charles I beheaded • New Sects Emerge – Levellers = Social and Political Reforms – Diggers = Rejected Parliament’s authority and private ownership of land – Quakers = Inner light • Rejected Church authority • Pacifists • Allowed women to preach • The Interregnum = No King – The Commonwealth established a Republic – Military Dictatorship in reality • The Protectorate – – – – – Lord Protector Oliver Cromwell Dissolves Rump Parliament England divided in 12 military districts Denies religious freedom to Anglicans and Catholics Jews encouraged to return • Military Accomplishments – Violently puts down Irish revolt – 2/3 of Catholic owned land given to Protestants – Conquers Scotland • Puritan Regulations – – – – – Enforcement of Public morality No theatres, dancing, or sports Strict observance of the Sabbath Press censored Led to the restoration of Charles II RESTORATION • Charles II – Agreed the King’s power was not absolute – Religious toleration granted • Tories and Whigs – Tories = Nobles, Gentry, Anglicans, pro-Monarchy – Whigs = Middle-class, Anglicans, pro-Parliament • The Clarendon Code (1661) – Restriction on Catholics and Puritans – The Test Act (1673) • Excluded from voting, teaching, preaching, government those unwilling to accept the sacraments of the Church of England • Catholicism – Charles II granted religious toleration to Catholics • Deal with Louis XIV for $ – Popish Plot = Titus Oates – Dissolved Parliament over succession crisis • Law denying succession to James II who was Catholic • Habeas Corpus Act (1679) – – – – Prisoners be in court Just cause for imprisonment Speedy trials No Double jeopardy • Scotland – Charles II names himself head of the Church of Scotland – Wanted to impose Anglican Church – Killing Time in Scotland • James II (1655-58) – Wanted to return England to Catholicism – Granted Religious freedom to all – Starts the Glorious Revolution GLORIOUS REVOLUTION 1688 • Parliament wanted a Constitutional Monarchy • Declaration of Indulgence – Grants freedom of worship to Catholics – Catholic heir is born • James II abdicates throne • William and Mary – Parliament declares them joint monarchs – Agrees to the Bill of Rights • The Bill of Rights – – – – – – – – King cannot be Roman Catholic Laws made with consent of Parliament Parliament has freedom of speech Taxation only with Parliament approval Due process of law Right to bear arms Right of petition No dissolving of Parliament by monarch • John Locke – Defends Glorious Revolution – People create a government to protect their natural rights – Life, Liberty and Property • Act of Settlement (1701) – If no successor then crown goes to the House of Hanover – German princes • The Cabinet System – The leading ministers selected by the majority party of the House of Commons make common policy – They conduct the business of the country under the Prime Minister • Robert Walpole – 1st Prime Minister – Cabinet was responsible to House of Commons and not the King NETHERLANDS • Government controlled by bourgeoisie • Confederation of 7 provinces • Each province was self-governing and represented in the Estates General • Each province elected a stadholder (governor) • In times of crisis they elected one stadholder to be the military leader (House of Orange) RELIGION, ECONOMICS & POLITICS • Calvinism was dominant religion – Dutch Reformed – Arminian • • • • • • Catholics and Jews enjoyed religious toleration Cosmopolitan society Amsterdam (Banking and Trade) Relied on Commerce Dutch East India Company Wars with England, France and the Spanish Succession caused them to decline SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION Medieval views were based on Aristotle and Ptolemy Geocentric Church views, traditions and practices governed society Causes of Revolution Free inquiry by philosophers Scientific figures taught at universities Renaissance stimulated science in rediscovering ancient mathematics COPERNICUS • • • • • On the Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres Heliocentric View Challenged Ptolemy and the book of Genesis Theory condemned by Catholics, Luther and Calvin Tycho Brahe – Observatory collected data – Wanted to disprove Copernicus theory • Johannes Kepler – Three Laws of Planetary Motion – Orbits are elliptical – Proved Copernican Theory GALILEO • • • • • Developed the Laws of Motion Used Empiricism (Controlled Experiments Validated Copernicus Theory with telescope Law of inertia Forced to recant by Pope Urban VII SCIENTIFIC METHOD • Francis Bacon Inductive Method (Empiricism) – Observation, Hypothesis, Experiment and organize data – Find the truth at the end • Rene Descartes Deductive Method – Discourse on Method – Cogito Ergo Sum – Start with clear facts and subdivide each problem into as many parts as possible – Cartesian Dualism divided Mind and Matter • Modern Scientific Method – Inductive Method + Deductive Method SIR ISAAC NEWTON • Incorporated the astronomy of Copernicus and Kepler with the physics of Galileo to explain the order and design of the universe – – – – Principia Natural Laws of Motion – Gravitation Natural laws are unchangeable and predictable Deism EFFECTS • Astronomy • Mathematics • Deism – God is a Clock Maker – He set the universe into motion and watches – Prayer not needed • Anatomy – William Harvey – Blood flow – Anton van Leeuwenhoek – Bacteria • Scientific Community – Governments encouraged Scientific discoveries – Prestige and new technology – Royal Society of England • Navigation • Led directly to the Enlightenment ENLIGHTENMENT IMPACT ON SOCIETY • • • • • • Emergence of a secular world view Enlightened Despotism American and French Revolutions Education reforms Growth of Laissez Faire capitalism Classical Liberalism – – – – – Individual liberties Equality before the law Natural Rights General Will Freedom of Speech, Religion and Press JOHN LOCKE • Two Treatises of Civil Government • State of Nature – Humans are good but lack protections • Natural Rights – Life, Liberty and Property • Education is the key to human development • Tabula Rasa PHILOSOPHES • Believed in progress through discovering the natural laws governing nature and human existence • Voltaire – – – – Challenged traditional Catholic theology Crush the infamous thing Advocated Enlightened Despotism Defend to the death your right to freedom of speech • Baron de Montesquieu – Separation of powers into three branches – Checks and balances • Jean-Jacques Rousseau – – – – – Social Contract General Will All men are born free but everywhere are in chains Man was a noble savage Emile believed in progressive education through learning by doing • Denis Diderot – Editor of Encyclopedia – Compilation of political and social critiques of the various Enlightenment philosophes – Emphasized science and reason – Critical of religion, injustice and tyranny • Marquis Beccaria – – – – On Crimes and Punishments Humanize criminal laws Equality before the law Opposed torture ADAM SMITH • Francois Quesnay was leader of the French physiocrats who opposed mercantilism and favored laissez faire • Adam Smith – – – – Wealth of Nations Expanded Laissez Faire Too much government control hurt production Believed economy governed by natural laws of supply and demand – Government should provide schools, roads and military to protect trade WOMEN • Salons • Emile – Women are to be obedient wife and mother • Voltaire – Women are capable of all that men do • Women patronized philosophes (Diderot) • Mary Wollstonecraft promoted political and educational equality for women to end women’s subjugation to men (slaves) IMMANUEL KANT • While reason can neither prove nor disprove the existence of God, faith and intuition can lead one to understand the spiritual truths, existence of God, immortality and heaven and hell. • “What is the Enlightenment” ENLIGHTENED ABSOLUTISM CHARACTERISTICS • Belief that Absolute Rulers should promote the good of the people • Religious toleration • Legal codes • Increased access to education • Reduction or elimination of torture and the death penalty FREDERICK THE GREAT • • • • • • • First Servant of the State Reforms increased power of the state Religious freedom to Catholics and Jews Created a clear unified national code of law Freed serfs on royal lands Abolished capital punishment Junkers – backbone of Prussia – Nobles – Serfdom maintained – Marriages not recognized between nobles and commoners CATHERINE THE GREAT • • • • • • Boyars given complete control of serfs Imported western culture into Russia Printing Press introduced Restricted torture Limited religious toleration – Old Believers Only nobles benefited MARIA THERESA • Pragmatic Sanction • Limited the power of the nobles and Church – – – – Partially freed the serfs Reduced tortures Suppressed the Jesuits Taxed the church • Economics – Abolished guilds – Abolished internal tariffs – Improved transportation JOSEPH II • • • • • • • • Abolished serfdom Freedom of religion given to Protestants and Jews Reformed judicial system Abolished torture and death penalty Established hospitals Expanded state schools Made parks available to public Made German the official language EUROPE IN THE 17th & 18th CENTURIES AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION • • • • • 80% of Western Europe were farmers and higher in the East Open Field System England and Netherlands Increase in food production led to population explosion New methods of cultivation – – – – Cornelius Vermuyden – Drainage Charles Townsend – Crop rotation Jethro Tull – Seed Drill Robert Bakewell – Selective Breeding • Columbian Exchange – Potatoes and Corn – Sugar • Enclosure Movement – – – – – – 1st Enclosure (16th Century) for Sheep 2nd Enclosure (18th Century) ended Open Field System Commericalization of Agriculture Increased farm size Corn Laws benefited landowners Peasants forced off land • Impact of Agricultural Revolution – – – – Population Explosion Enclosure movement Cottage Industry Lower food prices ATLANTIC ECONOMY • Spain, Portugal, Netherlands, Great Britain and France • Mercantilism • Bullionism • Navigation Acts • Triangular Trade • The Dutch • The Slave Trade • The Bubbles • Colonial Wars – Britain vs. France – Treaty of Utrecht • Ended War of Spanish Succession • Asiento given to Britain – Seven Years War • • • • • Started over who would control North America Treaty of Paris ended war France lost Canada Spain given Louisiana Britain received India – The American Revolution • France • Britain lost American colonies POPULATION GROWTH • • • • Potato Better diet = better immune system Improved sanitation system Medicine advances (Edward Jenner) THE FAMILY EDUCATION AND HEALTH THE FRENCH REVOLUTION ANCIEN REGIME • • • • Louis XV restored the Parlement First Estate Second Estate Third Estate – – – – Taille Corvee Bourgeoisie Lettre de cachet • Arrest warrant without charges or trial LONG-TERM CAUSES • American ideals of liberty • Enlightenment ideas led to criticism of government – Montesquieu, Locke, Rousseau • Laissez faire – Adam Smith • French debt • American Revolution SHORT TERM CAUSES • • • • • • • France was bankrupt because of the debt Inefficient tax system Inflation (65%) Jacques Necker tried to raise taxes on Nobility Assembly of Notables Famine and drought Cahiers de doleances – Complaints NATIONAL ASSEMBLY • • • • • • Estates General (May 1789) Abbe Sieyes = What is the Third Estate Tennis Court Oath The Great Fear August 4th = Nobility abolished Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen – – – – – Men are free and equal Natural Rights are to be protected General Will Freedom of Speech and Religion Separation of Powers • March to Versailles • Civil Constitution of the Clergy (1790) – – – – Secularized religion Monasteries abolished Church property used to pay debts Clergy to be elected and forbidden to accept authority of the Pope • Refactory Clergy = Refused to accept it – Divides France • Metric System • Le Chapelier law – Outlawed strikes and unions • Assignats = $ backed by Church property • Flight to Varennes – Louis XVI and family tried to escape – Wanted to create a counter-revolutionary army WOMEN • Women Improvements – Right to divorce – Inherit property – Child support • Equality? – Could not vote or hold office – No belief in gender equality • Olympe de Gouges – Declaration of the Rights of Woman – Wanted the same rights as men had • Mary Wollstonecraft – Vindication of the Rights of Woman – Women’s Suffrage • Women’s March to Versailles – Jean Paul Marat – Bread shortages – Forced King, Queen and son to return to Paris REVOLUTION AND EUROPE • Edmund Burke – Defended inherited privileges of monarchy and nobles – Predicted anarchy and dictatorship – Denounced the enlightenment political philosophy as abstract • Thomas Paine – Defended Enlightenment and French Revolution – Saw triumph of liberty over despotism – European Monarchs were now worried • Declaration of Pillnitz – Influenced by the emigres – Prussia and Austria promised to restore the French monarchy – Legislative Assembly declared war on Austria • War of the First Coalition • Brunswick Manifesto – Threat to destroy Paris if royal family is harmed • Lazare Carnot = Levee en masse – Nationalism (Liberty, Equality and Fraternity) • Napoleon – Battle of the Pyramids LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY • Replaces National Assembly 1791-92 • Jacobins dominate – Girondins • Paris Commune – Revolutionary municipal government • September Massacres NATIONAL CONVENTION • Jacobins – The Mountain (Radical) – The Girondins • Sans-culottes • Louis XVI executed • The Mountain and sans-culottes oust the Girondins • Marat stabbed REIGN OF TERROR • Committee of Public Safety – Internal and external challenges • Maximilien Robespierre • Law of the Maximum – Planned economy – Lowered prices • Law of Suspects – Alleged enemies of revolution were tried • Marie Antoinette • Guillotine – 40K executed – 300K imprisoned • No one was safe • Republic of Virtue – Cult of the Supreme Being • Deistic Religion • Robespierre – Temple of Reason – New calendar • Thermidorian Reaction – Opposition to Robespierre – Ended the Reign of Terror THE DIRECTORY • • • • 5 member executive to govern France Bourgeoisie in control Reduced power of sans-culottes Conspiracy of Equals – Gracchus Babeuf – Wanted a dictatorial democracy with equality and no property rights • Napoleon returns – Coup d’Etat NAPOLEON BONAPARTE 1799 - 1815 ENLIGHTENED NAPOLEON • Consulate Period = First Consul • Napoleonic Code – – – – Equality before the law Freedom of religion Property rights Abolishment of serfdom • Careers • Concordat of 1801 – – – – French keeps the lands taken France appoints clergy Catholic worship allowed in public Toleration given to Protestants and Jews • Bank of France • Economic Reforms – – – – Lower food prices Increased employment Tax system better Le Chapelier continued • Educational Reforms – Preparation for government service & professional occupations • Police state repressed liberty, subverted Republicanism and restored Absolutism under Napoleon NAPOLEONIC WARS • • • • • • • • • • • • • Crowned himself emperor The Grand Empire Battle of Trafalgar Battle of Austerlitz Confederation of the Rhine The Continental System The Peninsular War The Russian Campaign Frankfurt Proposals Quadruple Alliance Charter of 1814 Hundred Days Battle of Waterloo CONGRESS OF VIENNA • Met to redraw the territorial lines and restore the social and political order of the ancien regime (Conservatives) • Prince Metternich • Czar Alexander I – Poland – Holy Alliance • Legitimacy – Restore the monarchs • Compensation – – – – – England = Naval bases Austria = Italian provinces Russia = Poland Prussia = Rhineland Sweden = Norway • Balance of Power – – – – – No one power could cause a general war Encircle France Belgium and Netherlands united Switzerland = neutrality Austria in control of German Confederation (Bund) • The Concert of Europe (1815-1848) – Keep the status quo • Congress System (1815-1822) – Same as above INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION ROOTS • Machines replaced humans and animal power • The Price Revolution stimulated production • Capitalism = Surplus of $ by middle class invested • Scientific Revolution • Cottage Industry = Putting Out System ENGLAND • Land and Geography – Good supply of coal and iron – Waterways provided power • Agricultural Revolution – Enclosure movement created a supply of workers – Revolutions in agriculture created more food for more workers • Avoided continental wars • Bank of England funded industry • Colonial Empire – Raw materials – Market for British products • Stable government with a strong middle class • Textiles – Cotton – Mechanized – Women workers • • • • Coal and Steam Engines Iron created heavy industries British dominated world markets British technology and engineers were best in the world INVENTIONS • • • • Flying Shuttle = John Kay Spinning Jenny = James Hargreaves Water Frame = Richard Arkwright Steam Engine = James Watt TRANSPORATION REVOLUTION • • • • • • • • • Steam Power Raw materials delivered to factories Robert Fulton’s Steamboat George Stephenson “Rocket” 1st important RR in the heart of industrial England Reduced cost of shipping Increased size of market = more demand Increased the demand for urban workers RR used to travel to work 1815 INDUSTRIALIZED EUROPE • Napoleonic Wars delayed industrialization • Studied Britain’s mistakes • Borrowed British technology, engineers and $ – – – – Illegal until 1843 Belgium, Holland, France and US just after 1815 Germany, Austria and Italy by 1850 Eastern Europe and Russia after 1885 • Credit Mobilier helped build RR • Zollverein – German tarriff on non-German imports – Free trade zone among member German states • Bourgeoisie – Factory owners – Golden Age • Protestants and Jews – Bankers URBANIZATION • Birth of factory towns – Manchester – 3 large cities to 31 in 35 years • Cities switched from cultural centers to industrial centers • Concentration of the population made conditions worse • Families working on the farm were an economic unit but industrialization/urbanization changed that • Work was taken away from the home • Man was the breadwinner • Women’s role was now tied to domestic duties • Single women worked for low wages and faced exploitation • Irish workers came to Britain for better jobs and to escape the Irish Potato Famine – – – – Irish Catholic peasants rented land Lived in poverty 1840s famine caused widespread suffering Immigration to Britain and the US WORKING CONDITIONS • • • • • • • 14 hours a day, few holidays Brutal and unsafe conditions Low wages especially for women and children Real wages increased 50% Skilled workers made 2X that of unskilled Work was impersonal Child Labor – Abandoned children – 12 hour days and appalling conditions – Families worked as a unit • Saddler Commission – Investigated working conditions • Factory Act of 1833 – Limited workday for children 9-13 to 8 hours a day – Limited hours of ages 14-18 to 12 hours a day – Elementary education for children under age of 9 INDUSTRIAL WORKER • Proletariat = Factory Workers • Poorhouses provided disgusting work designed to persuade workers to get out of the Poorhouses • Luddites – Irate workers smashed machines – Feared machines were taking their jobs • Friedrich Engels (The Condition of the Working Class) – Colleague of Karl Marx – Charged the English Middle Class with mass murder, robbery and other crimes at the expense of the proletariat UNION MOVMENT • Leaders began organizing workers to resist exploitation • Combination Acts (1799) – Prohibited Unions – Fear from the French Revolution = • Robert Owen – Cared about his workers – New Harmony = Utopian Socialist community • Chartists – All men have the right to vote • Unions wanted the 10-hour day and cheaper grain prices (Anti-Corn laws) • Bread and Butter issues = CONSERVATISM, NATIONALISM, LIBERALISM & SOCIALISM CONCERT OF EUROPE • Keep the status quo (Conservatives) • Dominated by Prince Metternich CONSERVATISM • A reaction to liberalism and the violence of the French Revolution • Edmund Burke • Worried about Nationalism threatening the empires (Austrian) CARLSBAD DECREES • Multi-ethnic composition of the Austrian Hapsburg Empire inspired liberalism and nationalism ideas • Universities, professors and student groups were more liberal and nationalistic • Prince Metternich cracked down on liberalism in universities • Unification literature was censored PETERLOO MASSACRE • Corn Laws of 1815 halted importation of cheaper foreign grain – Benefited wealthy English landowners – Hurt the majority of English population • Pro-Liberal crowd listening to anti-Corn law speeches were attacked by British police – 11 killed • Press was censored and mass meetings prohibited NATIONALISM • Turn cultural unity into self-government • Common language, history and traditions bring unity and common loyalities • Supported by Liberals • Origins: French Revolution and Napoleon • Johann G. Herder – – – – Volksgeist Every culture is unique No one culture is superior Every nation should contain all members of the same nationality • Johann G. Fichte – Father of German nationalism – German superiority over other peoples – Criticized Jews REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENTS • Spain (1820) • Naples (1820) – Carbonari – Austrian troops crush rebellion • Greek Revolution (1821-29) – Eastern Question = Balkans – England, France and Russia join Greeks • Greeks were Christians • Ottomans were Muslim – Defeated Turks – Greek independence recognized LIBERALISM • Humans have certain “natural rights” and government should protect these rights • Rights are to be guaranteed by a written Constitution = • Republican form of government – Representative • Adam Smith (Wealth of Nations) – Bible of capitalism – Economic individualism • Laissez faire – Opposed government intervention – Invisible hand = Supply and Demand • David Ricardo = Iron Law of Wages – Plentiful workers keep wages low – Hurts the working class – Fewer worker kids will reduce workers and improve wages • Utilitarianism – Jeremy Bentham – Greatest happiness for the greatest number • John Stuart Mill – Absolute freedom of opinion to be protected from censorship and tyranny of the majority (Voltaire) – Argued for Women’s Rights • Thomas Malthus = POPULATION • Inspired revolutions in 19th century • Influenced reform movements in Britain LIBERAL REFORM IN ENGLAND • • • • • • Britain abandoned the Congress System Reformed the prisons = Auburn system Metropolitan Police Force Test Act Repealed Catholic Emancipation Act (1829) Reform Bill of 1832 – People demanded a more responsive government because of the cholera epidemic – Eliminated under populated rural districts (rotten boroughs) – Representation increased in manufacturing districts • Factory Act 1833 • Poor Law 1834 (Poorhouses) • Chartists – – – – – Secret balloting No property qualifications for parliament Salaries for members of parliament Annual elections End to the rotten boroughs • Corn Laws Repealed (1846) • Victorian Age FRANCE • Charter of 1814 – Constitutional Monarchy established – Louis XVIII • White Terror – Former revolutionaries murdered by royalists mobs • Spanish revolution crushed – French troops called in by Concert of Europe to restore the monarch • July Revolution (1830) – Charles X July Ordinances were to impose an Absolute Monarchy repealing the Constitution of 1814 – Radicals in Paris revolt = Charles X abdicates – Louis Phillippe named the new king – The new Bourgeoisie King let the middle class control the government – Started a new wave of revolutions in Europe ITALY • Northern Italy was controlled by the Austrians inspiring liberal discontent • Guiseppe Mazzini secret society Young Italy called for unification • The Carbonari wanted force o achieve national unification • Austrian troops crushed the disorganized rebellion • Italian Risorgimento continued Mazzini’s dream GERMAN STATES • Carlsbad decrees restricted freedom • University students and professors inspired by the French demanded constitutions • Metternich crushed these revolts also BELGIUM • The United Provinces of the Netherlands (Dutch Protestant) were united with Belgium (Catholic) • Belgium resisted being ruled by the Dutch • They each had a different language, religion and economic life • They were merged to control France • Students and professors demanded an independent Belgium • Netherlands and Belgium separated RUSSIA • Decembrist Uprising (1825) – Junior military officers did not want Nicholas to be the next Czar – These junior military officers revolt was put down by Nicholas • Nicholas I – – – – Police state Censorship No representative assemblies Education carefully monitored • Slavophiles – Russian culture was superior to Western • Westernizers – Expand Russian culture through Industrialization and a Constitutional government SOCIALISM • Wanted to reorganize society to establish cooperation and create a sense of community • Count Henri Saint-Simon – Industrialization with Science will create a great world – Remove the parasites • Lawyers, Aristocrats, the Court and the Clergy – The doers can provide the proper organized society • Scientists, Engineers and Industrialists – Public Work projects • Louis Blanc • Pierre Proudhon – What is Property – Believed property was stolen from the worker – The worker is the source of all wealth UTOPIAN • Charles Fourier – Planned Socialist Economy – Total emancipation of women • Robert Owen KARL MARX • Marxism developed by Marx and Friedrich Engels • The Communist Manifesto – Bible of communism – Replace Utopian dreams with brutal blueprint for the proletariat • Dialectical Materialism – All human history determined by economic factors – Class struggle between the rich and poor • Theory of the Surplus Value – Worker receives just a small portion of the true value of his work – It is stolen from him by the capitalist • Socialism is inevitable • Violent Revolution needed to overthrow the elite bourgeoisie • Working Men of ALL COUNTRIES UNITE • Creation of a classless society • Women are doubly oppressed – Women are paid low wages and exploited – Women are considered 2nd class citizens 1848 • Revolutions influenced by Nationalism, Liberalism and Romanticism • Only Britain and Russia avoided revolutions • End to serfdom in Austria and Germany • Stimulated the unification impulse in Prussia and Sardinia-Piedmont (Italy) • FRANCE • February Revolution – Working class and liberals wanted electoral reform – King abdicates – Louis Blanc wants National Workshops to provide work for the unemployed – 10 hour day established – Abolished death penalty – Blanc removed leads to July Revolution • June Days Revolution – Government closes National Workshops – Barricades (Les Miserables – Revolt crushed by General Cavaignac • Election of Louis Napoleon • • • • • • • ITALY Nationalist and Liberals wanted end to foreign domination (Austrians) Giuseppe Mazzini established Republic protected by Garibaldi Revolt crushed Rural people did not support the revolutions Revolutionaries not united Fear of radicals among the moderates • • • • • • • • • AUSTRIA Ethnic minorities sought nationalistic goals Only 25% of the population was German French revolution sparked revolution Louis Kossuth was the Hungarian/Magyar leaders demanded independence Metternich fled as the empire collapsed Austrians and Slavic joined together to defeat the Magyars At the Prague Conference Austroslavism was an attempt to unite the Slavic people as one Austrians army put it down • GERMAN STATES • Inspired by the French • Frankfurt Parliament – Liberal Romantics wanted a constitution for all in the German Bund – Unification of Germany was the goal – Prussia and Austria defeated Denmark getting Schleswig and Holstein – Selected Prussia King to rule • Prussian King Frederick IV – Divine Right – Not accept crown from the gutter • Unification movement collapsed because it was not supported by Austria or Prussia • Humiliation of Olmutz – Austria demanded Prussia’s obedience to Bund that Austria controlled – Prussia drop unification plan, payback is coming ROMANTICISM BASICS • Emotion over Reason • Glorification of nature emphasizing its beauty and danger • Rejected the Enlightenment beliefs • Emphasized feelings leading a fight against slavery, poverty and industrial evils • Drew upon ideals of the Middle Ages – Honor, Faith and Glory • Rousseau = Noble savage • Kant = God • Johann Herder – Rebelled against Enlightenment – Believed German language was key to unity – Volksgeist • George Wm. Hegel – – – – Dialectic Thesis is challenged by opposing view (Anti-Thesis) Result is a blending of the ideas Continues throughout history • Johann Fichte – Germans were superior – Anti-Semitic POETRY • Johann Goethe – Faust – Sells his soul to the devil to experience …. • Sir Walter Scott – Historical poems and novels – Ivanhoe and Knights LITERATURE • Goethe – Romantic hero is misunderstood and rejected by society – Rejected by the girl he loves – suicide • Victor Hugo – Fantastic characters and strange settings – Hunchback of Notre Dame – Les Miserables • Grimm’s Fairy Tales – Collection of German folk stories – German nationalism and romanticism are tied together ART • Eugene Delacroix – Liberty Leading the People • JMW Turner – The power of nature and man’s attempt to survive its force MUSIC • • • • • Beethoven Schubert Chopin (Polish) Verdi Richard Wagner – Music-Drama – German nationalist • Peter Tchaikovsky – The Nutcracker and Swan Lake – 1812 Overture 2nd INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION • ROSE – – – – • • • • R O S E Bessemer Process = Steel Science and Technology become linked together 1890s Germany most powerful industrial nation Workers were attracted to the cities URBANIZATION • • • • • • 1891 = 50% of the Europe’s population Decline in mortality rates Better nutrition, medical knowledge and housing Number of children dropped Edwin Chadwick = Sanitation Georges von Haussmann redeveloped Paris – Wider boulevards – Middle class housing in the suburbs – Parks and open spaces • Electric streetcar – Suburbs – Subways • Jews in eastern Europe fled to the West to escape persecution • Increase in the standard of living • Experts with specialized knowledge needed to be professionals and managers • Petite Bourgeoisie = Lower middle class • Women worked as secretaries, hello girls and nurses SOCIAL STRUCTURE • 15-20% of Western Europe were Middle Class – 2% in Eastern Europe • The petite bourgeoisie were the lower middle class that included shopkeepers, civil servants, teachers, craftsmen • Middle Class were liberals who wanted protection of property in a constitution • Middle Class emphasized respectability is based on financial success • The middle class saw the family as the foundation of social order and that education, religion and Nationalism are extremely important • Working class totaled about 80% or more of the population – Many were peasants or hired hands • The labor aristocracy were the skilled workers • The unskilled workers or domestic servants were at the bottom of society • Children comprised about 14% of the workers FAMILY • Romantic love #1 reason for marriage by 1850 • Improved standard of living made it possible to marry at a younger age • Middle class females were monitored closed (chastity) not so much for the boys • The high rate of illegitimacy declined after 1850 • After 1850 the work of most wives was distinct and separate from their husbands work – Husbands were primary wage earners – Wives = Cult of Domesticity – Wives disliked 2nd class status • Parents became more emotionally involved with their children’s lives as mortality rates drop • Mothers breast fed their children • Fewer children abandoned to foundling hospitals • Middle Class decreased the # of children • Parents of Middle class children wanted to improve the economic and social condition of their children • Working class children went to work at adolescences = less emotional ties to family INTELLECTUAL MOVEMENTS Belle Epoque • • • • Life at the end of the century (fin de siecle) People enjoyed higher wages and lower food prices Increased leisure time with increased money to spend Sports – – – – – Soccer Rugby Bicycle Auto Races Golf • Women took part in bicycling and sports clubs • Social Darwinists said sports competition confirmed the superiority of certain races • Cafés and taverns enjoyed increased patronage • Department stores grew significantly • New inventions changed society – – – – – – Telephone Automobile Gramophone Radio Motion pictures Telegraph • By 1900 England and France (Ferry Laws) required school attendance to age 13 and education was free • Literacy rates increased – Men higher than women – Urbanites more than rural – Northern/Western higher than Southern/Eastern • Girls had less access to secondary education (Females had to pay) SCIENCE • Louis Pasteur – Developed germ theory – Pasteurization – Reduced food poisoning • Joseph Lister – Antiseptic principle in surgeries – Fewer people dying of infection from surgery • August Comte – Positivism – All intellectual activity travels through predictable stages – Humans will one day discover the eternal laws of human relations – Wanted a religion of science – Wanted rule to be by the Social Scientists • Charles Darwin – Theory of Evolution – All life evolved gradually from a common origin – Struggle for survival and adaption • Herbert Spencer – Social Darwinism – Survival of the Fittest – Imperialists and Industrialists used this theory to justify their crushing of the competition • Sigmund Freud – – – – – The human subconscious (ID) was not subject to reason Sex was the driving force to one’s psychological make-up Repressed sexual desires lead to psychological problems Dreams Hypnosis • Marie Curie – Discovered first radioactive element with her husband • Max Planck – Quantum theory that subatomic energy is emitted in uneven spurts – Laws of universe are now unpredictable • Albert Einstein – Theory of Relativity of time and space challenged Newton – Time and space are relative to the observer – E = mc2: • Matter and energy are interchangeable • Even a tiny particle contains enormous levels of potential energy – Warned FDR that Germans were building an atomic bomb • Darwinism challenged the Bible’s account of the creation of humans • Freudian psychology undermined the belief that humans were rational beings in control of their emotions • Shattered belief that universe could be explained easily via Newtonian phsyics • This uncertainty created by physics along with WW I will create an age of pessimism REALISM • Belief that literature and art should depict life as it really was • A reaction to the failure of the 1848 Revolutions • Gustave Flaubert depicted middle class as petty, smug and hypocritical • Leo Tolstoy had a fatalistic view of history but regards love, trust and everyday family ties as life’s enduring values • Artist were no longer dependent on patrons but created art they could sell • Ordinary people in urban settings became the focus of Realism Art • Millet, Degas, Manet IMPRESSIONISM • Impact of photography in which the subject is captured accurately • Painters sought to capture the momentary feeling or impression of the scene right before them • Monet, Renoir POSTIMPRESSIONISM • Desire to know and depict worlds other than the visible world can see • Wanted to portray the unseen, inner worlds of emotion and imagination • A psychological view of reality • Vincent van Gogh • Paul Cezanne • Pablo Picasso (Cubism) RELIGION • Nationalism decreased the influence of the Catholic church in some areas • Liberalism distanced society from the pope • Pope Pius IX condemned liberalism and Italian unification with his Syllabus of Errors • 1870 the pope was declared to be infallible when speaking on religious matters • Pope Leo XIII issued Rerum Novarum that condemned Socialism and Marxism while defending private property (capitalism) in hopes Catholics would participate in the politics of more liberal states • It also wanted laws protecting workers from exploitation • Leo XIII announcement led to the creation of Catholic Political parties THE AGE OF MASS POLITICS CRIMEAN WAR • Dispute between Catholics and Orthodox over privileges in the Holy Lands • Turks gave preference to Napoleon III and the Catholics • Czar Nicholas I believe Eastern Orthodox access was in jeopardy • Russia took Turk lands, Turks declare war on Russia • Britain and France join the Turks who were Muslims • Alexander II agreed to the Four Points ending the war – Gave up protectorship of Grek Orthodox Christians – Lost control of mouth of the Danube river – Black Sea neutral • Florence Nightingale = nursing • Russia was behind militarily and move toward industrialization and the modernization of its army THIRD FRENCH REPUBLIC • President Louis Napoleon (1851) seen as symbol of stability and greatness • Favored by the church, army, property-owners and business (conservatives) • Falloux Laws returned control of education to the Church • Emperor Napoleon III (1852) centralized power with censorship of the press and state controlled elections until 1859 • Became more liberal after 1859. • Infrastructure was improved (Georges von Haussmann) • Credit Mobilier funded economic growth • Suez Canal completed • Allowed trade unions to exist and allowed them to strike • Ended censorship and granted amnesty to political prisoners • Rescued Pope Pius IX • Colonialism was a problem • Foreign policy disasters caused these reforms to occur divert attention from his failures • Franco-Prussian War led to his collapse • Napoleon III abdicates during the Franco-Prussian War • Adolphe Thiers created a new government • The Paris Commune was a radical communist group that took over Paris – Refused to accept treaty ending Franco-Prussian War – Reused to accept the new government because they were acting as royalists (Versailles) • National Assembly put down the Paris Commune • Third French Republic – Trade unions legalized – Multi-party system caused it to collapse several times • Jules Ferry established a secular education system for public schools • Boulanger Crisis – Plot to overthrow the government • Panama Canal Crisis – Ferdinand de Lesseps failure cost France millons • Dreyfus Affair – Anti-Semitism – Captain Dreyfus accused of being a traitor – Divided the country • Emile Zola – J’accuse GERMAN EMPIRE • Humiliation of Olmutz • Zollverein • Kleindeutsch plan – Unified Germany without Austria • Otto von Bismarck – The iron chancellor for Wilhelm I who ran the government • Gap Theory – Legislature wanted reforms in the military and King disagreed – No mention of what to do in case of a stalemate in the constitution – Since King created constitution then he can ignore the liberals and make his own decisions • Great questions of the day will not be decided by speeches and resolutions (1848) but by blood and iron (Bismarck) • Prussian-Danish War – Germany and Austria defeated Denmark – Joint control of Schleswig and Holstein • Austro-Prussian War – Bismarck wanted a localized war – Crushed Austria • North German Confederation – Reichstag – Bypassed Middle Class • Franco-Prussian War – Ems Dispatch provoked war – Southern German states join with Bismarck – France is crushed • Treaty of Frankfurt – Alsace and Lorraine given to Germany/Prussia • The German Empire (1871-1918) • The Reichstag was the bicameral legislature that was divided – Conservatives = Junkers – Center Party = Catholics – Social Democrats = Marxists • Bismarck considered the Social Democrats and Catholic Center Party were the greatest threats to the empire • Bismarck developed a universal German legal code • Kulturkampf – Believed that Catholics could not be loyal to both Germany and the Pope – Education taken over by the state – Veto power over clerical appointments – Catholics stayed strong • Social Democratic Party – – – – Industrial workers Wanted Socialism and Republicanism Universal suffrage Social programs • Bismarck’s reforms – – – – Health insurance (1st) Social Security (1st) Accident insurance Child Labor regulations • Kaiser Wilhelm II – Fired Bismarck to get support from the workers – Did not sign the Re-Insurance treaty with Russia – Factory Inspection Act to improve work conditions ITALIAN UNIFICATION • Sardinia-Piedmont led the unification movement under King Victor Emmanuel, Count Cavour and Garibaldi • Realpolitik replaced romanticism – Political outgrowth of Realism – Accomplishing political goals through practical means – Idealism is replaced with Machiavellian actions • Prime Minister Count Cavour – – – – Editor of Il Risorgimento Created a liberal and economically sound state Reduced the influence of the Church Pope Pius IX issued his Syllabus of Errors warning Catholics of liberalism, rationalism, socialism, and the separation of Church and State • Plombieres – Napoleon III promise to support Sardinia in war against Austria • Unification – Sardinia wins taking Northern Italy • Giuseppe Garibaldi – The Red Shirts liberated southern Italy and Sicily • The Boot – Garibaldi agreed to let his conquests be absorbed by King Victor Emmanuel II who had supported him • Venice – Italy helps Prussia with Austrians • Rome – France pulled it’s troops because of war with Prussia AUSTRIAN EMPIRE • The Hungarians and Czechs demanded selfgovernment • Ausgleich – Creation of a Dual Monarchy (Austria-Hungary) – Hungary had self-government but loyal to Franz Jospeh • Language – German was a problem since only 25% of the empire was German • Anti-Semitism GREAT BRITAIN • Political re-alignment – Tory Party becomes Conservative Party – Whig Party becomes Liberal Party • Benjamin Disraeli (Conservative) – Aggressive Foreign Policy (Big England) – Expansion of British Empire – Reform Bill of 1867 • • • • • Expanded Reform Bill of 1832 More equitable representation Industrial cities gained seats from rural areas (rotten boroughs) Right to vote for men over 21 Doubled the number of voters – Reduced government regulation of trade unions • William Gladstone (Liberal) – – – – – Irish Home Rule Opposed imperialism Abolished taxes supporting Anglican Church for Catholics Australian Ballot (secret) Civil Service Reform • Fabian Society – Revisionist Marxism – Wanted Economic Socialism wtih Political Democracy • Parliament Act of 1911 – Liberal Party – Eliminated powers of the House of Lords – House of Commons center of power • Social Welfare State prior to WW I – – – – – – Right of unions to strike Workers Compensation Unemployment insurance Old-Age pensions Compulsory school attendance Tax increase on the wealthy to pay for social welfare state • Representation of People Act (1918) – Suffrage for Women over age 30 – World War I THE EASTERN QUESTION • • • • • Balkans Ottomans “Sick Man of Europe” Austrians, Russians and Serbians Powder Keg of Europe Pan-Slavism RUSSIA • Alexander II – – – – Believed serfdom held back Russia’s modernization 90% of Russians worked in agriculture Serfs could be bought and sold Serfs could be conscripted into the military • Emancipation Act (1861) – Abolished serfdom – Lived in mirs • Mirs – Regulated communes – Collective ownerships delayed agricultural improvments • Zemstvos – Assemblies that administrated local areas • Count S. Y. Witte – – – – – Oversaw Russian industrialization Steel and Oil Industrialization stimulated by RR construction Trans-Siberian RR Industrialization led to industrial suburbs • Alexander III – Autocracy, Orthodoxy, Russification – Encouraged anti-Semitism (Pogroms) • Zionism – Theodore Herzl – Jewish homeland in the Holy Lands WOMEN’S SUFFRAGE BRITAIN • • • • Wanted better divorce laws Women’s suffrage to improve exploitation and abuse Millicent Garrett Fawcett demanded female suffrage Emmeline Pankhurst was militant suffragette destroying RR stations, works of art and store windows • Hunger strikes • Representation of the People Act (1918) • Reform Act of 1928 – Suffrage for WOMEN over 21, yea baby SCANDINAVIA • First grant Women’s Suffrage – Finland 1906 – Norway 1913 IMPERIALISM CAUSES CHINA, JAPAN & EGYPT NEW IMPERIALISM CRITICS WORLD WAR I CAUSES WESTERN FRONT EASTERN FRONT MOBILIZATION FOR TOTAL WAR FOURTEEN POINTS REVOLUTIONS IN GERMANY AND AUSTRIA PEACE SETTLEMENTS RUSSIAN REVOLUTION 1905 WORLD WAR I FEBRUARY REVOLUTION OCTOBER REVOLUTION TREATY OF BREST-LITOVSK RUSSIAN CIVIL WAR WOMEN RESULTS INTERWAR YEARS MODERN PHILOSOPHY • Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900): – a. One of the most important critics of the rationalism of the Enlightenment – b. In Thus Spake Zarathustra (1883-85), he blasted religion and famously claimed "God is Dead" – · Claimed Christianity embodied a “slave morality,” which glorified weakness, envy, and mediocrity. – · Individualism had been quashed by society. – c. In Will to Power (1888) he wrote that only the creativity of a few supermen—übermenschen—could successfully reorder the world. – d. Though not widely read by his contemporaries, his writings seemed relevant in the atmosphere of post-World War I pessimism • Existentialism took root in Continental countries after World War II. – a. In the wake of the horrors of World War II and the advent of the atomic age, pessimism and hopelessness were expressed by existentialists. – b. Existentialists saw life as absurd, with no inherent meaning. – c. Viewed a world where the individual had to find his own meaning – d. Most existentialists were atheists – e. Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980): Wrote that life had no meaning and that humans simply exist • · He was strongly attracted to communism • f. Albert Camus (1913-1960) – · Individuals had to find meaning to life by taking action against those things with which they disagree. – · Ones actions are derived from personal choices that are independent from religion or political ideology. • g. Martin Heidegger and Karl Jaspers were also prominent existentialists. FREUD • Freudian psychology was first developed in the late 1880s by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) – a. Traditional psychology assumed a single, unified conscious mind processed sensory experiences in a rational and logical way. – b. Freudian psychology seemed to reflect the spirit of the early 20th century, with its emphasis on humans as greedy irrational creatures. – c. Became an international movement by 1910 and received popular attention after 1918, especially in Protestant countries of Northern Europe and the U.S. • d. Freud asserted that because the human unconscious (ID) is driven by sexual, aggressive, and pleasure-seeking desires, humans are therefore NOT rational! The ID battles the Ego & Superego – · Ego: Rationalizing conscious mediates what a person can do. – · Superego: Ingrained moral values specify what a person should do. – · Shattered the enlightenment view of rationality and progress. • e. Freud agreed with Nietzsche that mechanisms of rational thinking and traditional morals values can be too strong on the human psyche – · They can repress sexual desires too effectively, crippling individuals and entire peoples with guilt and neurotic fears – · Many opponents and some enthusiasts interpreted Freud as saying that the first requirement for mental health is an uninhibited sex life – · After WWI, the popular interpretation of Freud reflected and encouraged growing sexual experimentation, particularly among middleclass women. MODERN ART WEIMAR REPUBLIC RISE OF HITLER GREAT BRITAIN GREAT DEPRESSION SPANISH CIVIL WAR TOTALITARIANISM SOVIET UNION LENIN STALIN LIFE IN THE SOVIET UNION ITALY MUSSOLINI LIFE IN FASCIST ITALY NAZI GERMANY NAZI IDEOLOGY NUREMBERG LAWS THE SS AND THE GESTAPO LIFE IN NAZI GERMANY HOLOCAUST WORLD WAR II LEAGUE OF NATIONS APPEASEMENT GERMAN-SOVIET NONAGGRESSION PACT POLAND CONQUEST OF WESTERN EUROPE VICHY FRANCE THE FINAL SOLUTION INVASION OF SOVIET UNION TURNING POINTS DIPLOMACY THE COLD WAR ROOTS CONTAINMENT MARSHALL PLAN BERLIN CRISIS NATO AND NUCLEAR ARMS KOREAN WAR STALIN’S FINAL YEARS IRON CURTAIN KHRUSHCHEV SUEZ CRISIS SPUTNIK AND U-2 INCIDENT BERLIN WALL CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS BREZHNEV ERA VIETNAM WAR WILLY BRANDT DETENTE HELSINKI CONFERENCE AFGHANISTAN GORBACHEV INF TREATY 1989 FALL OF THE SOVIET UNION WESTERN EUROPEAN RECOVERY WEST GERMANY FRANCE GREAT BRITAIN ITALY ECONOMIC MIRACLE CONSUMERISM OIL CRISIS EUROPEAN UNITY WELFARE STATE FAMILY WOMEN’S RIGHTS MOVEMENT COUNTER CULTURE DECOLONIZATION INDIA EGYPT ALGERIA MIDDLE EAST ISRAEL GERMAN UNIFICATION YUGOSLAVIA GUEST WORKERS
