Unit 4
PSY 4600
Higher Education &
Teaching Technology
Schedule:
T & R, Lecture
T, 10/15, exam
1
College Teaching and Teaching Technology:
Evidence-Based Practices
• Behavioral analysis of college teaching and
student study behavior
• Direct Instruction used primarily in elementary
and secondary schools
• Precision Teaching
• MimioSprout and MimioReading: web-based
reading and reading comprehension
programs for children created by behavior
analysts (formerly Headsprout)
2
College Teaching
• Behavioral analysis of college teaching
and student studying behavior
– Article by Dr. Jack Michael, helps explain
• Why PSY professors administer more exams
and require more assignments than professors
in other departments typically do
• Why I structure PSY 4600 the way I do with
study objectives, frequent essay examinations
and grade sheets
• Why, from a behavioral perspective, your study
behavior may differ in this class vs. other
classes
• Why some (most of us) procrastinate - when
studying for exams, writing papers, preparing
conference presentations, etc.
3
Introduction/Overview to the Michael article
• The teaching technology discussed in the
article is relevant for the “typical” college class
with a course enrollment of 35-40 or more and
a clear “factual content.”
• It is not relevant for fine arts (dance, sculpting,
painting, writing) or other skill training such as
public speaking, mechanics, etc.
• While this technology can be used with small
classes (15 or fewer students), there are also
methods that can be equally effective
• Most university classes at colleges and
universities are the type discussed
in the article
4
Overview, cont.
 Begins by discussing student motivation to
study. That is, what factors motivate students to
study hard?
 He discusses a number of things that are often
mentioned by individuals (intrinsic interest in
the subject matter, approval/disapproval of
others, short-term payoffs, long-range payoffs
of learning the material, etc.)
 He argues against each one, concluding that
the course grade is the only effective
motivational variable and the only one over
which the instructor has control.
5
Overview, cont.
• However, even the grade will not be an effective
motivator if the grade is not important to the
student
• He further states that if the grade is not important
to the student, then there is nothing an instructor
can do to motivate students to study
6
Overview, cont.
• Fortunately, grades are important to most
students, thus, while
• Many say that grades should not be emphasized
- Michael disagrees with that
• The grade is the only motivative factor that the
instructor has under his/her control and thus
should be emphasized
7
How to structure a course
• Next, he describes how to structure a course
so that the course grade is an effective
motivator
• Three features that must be present in order
for students to study hard (SO 11, but stated
positively):
– The grade must be important to the student
– Studying must be closely (and explicitly)
linked to the exam/assignment grades
– The exam/assignment grades must be
closely (and explicitly) linked to the course
grade
(how many I didn’t study at all, aced the test; I studied very hard and didn’t have a clue? 2 exams - chapter 4 graduate course - didn’t know passed/failed; how many, assignment/quiz, have no idea how it relates to final grade
810%, 20%, maybe checkmark)
SO1: Creativity?
 This type of course structure is very
controversial and has been criticized for a
number of reasons
 The first criticism: This type of course does not
teach creativity or new knowledge, but only
teaches students how to parrot back old
knowledge.
 Michael’s response?
9
SO1: Creativity?
• Creativity requires an extensive familiarity with
what is already known - an extensive
knowledge base about which one can be
creative.
For example, If you don’t understand reinforcement,
punishment, shaping, etc., you cannot create an
effective instructional system or develop an effective
training program for individuals with developmental
disabilities or design a treatment program for
individuals with chronic pain.
(need to know the basics so you can effectively use them to create something new)
10
SO2: What are two main problems with intrinsic
interest in the subject as a motivational factor?
1.While the subject matter may indeed
be interesting to students, it is usually
not sufficiently interesting to maintain
the amount of study required to
master the material
A student may be passionate about behavior
analysis, love 4600, but that is not likely to
maintain 8 or more hours of studying each
week
11
SO2, cont.
2. Competing
activities that can’t
be postponed
Friend stops by – Waldos!
Basketball game, play
Baby/child gets sick
You can always study
tomorrow, but sometimes,
tomorrow never comes…
(in general, 2nd reason, include not postponable)
12
SO3: Why is it that short-term advantages from the
newly acquired material do not motivate studying?
• 3A: Unlike some courses, like automobile
mechanics, many
courses do not
have many short-term advantages; rather
• 3B: They are important for further learning
– You can’t run before you can walk
– You can’t master the material in 4600 until
you have mastered the material in 3600
– You can’t master algebra unless you
master arithmetic
13
SO4: Describe the weakness of long-range
payoffs related to the details of the study
assignment.
Note: Delay is not the main issue
• It is easy to believe that you can contribute
to the human condition - that is, be a
successful behavior analyst - without
understanding the specific details of the
study assignment
– It is easy to believe that you can be an effective
human service worker, OBM practitioner, clinical
psychologist, etc. without knowing SOs 5, 14, 20
and 26 from Unit 4 in Dickinson’s PSY 4600.
14
SO 5 NFE: So why are grades the best motivational
factor to motivate student studying?
• It is the one motivational factor over which the instructor
has control - the only one (we can’t control intrinsic
interest, we can’t control whether others in the
environment support scholarly performance, etc.)
• It can be easily related to the details of the study
assignment (we can make SOs 3, 14, & 20 from U4
important by relating them to the exam/assignment)
• It is a factor of considerable strength - that is, it is
important to most students as evidenced by the intensity
of study/work right before an exam or right before an
assignment is due
(Three points)
15
SO 6: Vicious vs. Friendly Competition and their
relationship to norm-referenced vs. criterionreferenced grading practices.
• Many criticize emphasizing grades because it generates
“competition” and competition is bad.
• Michael distinguishes between “vicious” and “friendly”
competition, and agrees that “vicious” competition is,
indeed, bad, but “friendly” competition is not.
• He then describes grading practices that produce “vicious”
competition and those that produce “friendly” competition.
• Norm-referenced grading practices produce vicious
competition and hence should not be adopted, while
criterion-referenced grading practices produce “friendly”
competition which is OK.
16
SO 6A: Norm-referenced grading produces vicious competition
• Why?
The grade you receive depends not only on your
grade but the grades of other students in the
class; if one student does well, it decreases the
opportunity for another student to do well
(learn the name - next slide as well)
17
SO 6A, cont.
•
•
•
•
Grading on a curve: 10% of the students get As, 20% get
Bs, 50% or so get Cs, etc.
If one student gets an A, it decreases the opportunity for
another student to get an A
This produces vicious competition between students; you
are likely to be happy when someone doesn’t get an A or
a B; you are not as likely to help someone - if you do, that
person may get an A, which decreases your chances to
get an A
In fact, some students may actually engage in behaviors
that will harm another’s student chance to get an A (steal
relevant books from the library)
(physio course, comp exams)
18
SO 6B:Criterion-referenced grading does not produce vicious
competition although it may produce friendly competition
• Why?
The grade you get depends only on your grade,
not on the grades other students get; thus when
one student performs well it does not decrease the
opportunity for another student to do well
(Learn the name)
19
SO 6B: Criterion-referenced grading
– Dickinson’s PSY 4600 grading practices; any student
who gets 92% of the points, gets an A.
– Friendly competition: Student wants to have the highest
point score in the class or a student wants to “beat out”
another student.
– But this does not produce the type of competition that
makes a student rejoice in the misfortune of other
students or refuse to help another student because it
might decrease his/her own grade.
(Learn the name)
20
SO 7: Study procrastination scallop
• Many people maintain that an exam or assignment is an
example of a FI schedule of reinforcement, which produces
the typical response “scallop.” (not much behavior in the
beginning of the interval, more and more behavior as the
interval progresses and reinforcement gets close).
• Not so! And the reasons are the same as the reasons we
examined last unit with respect to why a paycheck is not an
example of a FI schedule.
• So how do we explain the scallop in studying/working that
occurs right before the exam?
• How is that scallop behavior related to the exam grade and
the course grade?
21
SO 7 Continued: Procrastination Scallop
• To understand this, it helps to know that the analysis
Michael presents is a molecular analysis.
• Underlying position that if a consequence follows a
behavior by more than 5 to 60 seconds, it is not a directacting contingency; that is, that consequence cannot
directly affect the behavior as reinforcement, punishment,
etc.
• Rather the effect that the consequence has is due to other
variables, such as verbal behavior.
• Michael is a molecular behavior analyst (as most others in
the department) and thus explains the procrastination
scallop using a molecular analysis where the consequence
of studying must occur within 5 to 60 seconds after the
behavior of studying
22
SO 7: Procrastination Scallop, A molecular behavioral analysis
• 7A: The relationship between two factors affects
studying (Note carefully, not just one or the other!)
– Task completion: how much of the task the student has
completed
– Time passage: the time left before the exam or
assignment
(be careful not to put this in your own words)
23
SO 7B: Procrastination Scallop
• Task completion and time passage together
determine the aversiveness of the situation at any
point in time before the exam or the assignment is
due
– To have a good deal of time left is “safe” or
“nonaversive”
– But to have completed very little of the task and
have very little time left is a condition that is
dangerous or “aversive”
– It is the aversiveness that generates escape
behavior
(closer the exam gets with no or little work done, the more aversive it becomes; I don’t have to explain that –
I would bet most of you have experienced this at one time or another)
24
SO 7B Continued
• Usually, the only relevant form of escape (that is,
the only way to reduce the aversiveness) is to
study
– Studying immediately decreases the existing
aversiveness
– The decrease in the aversiveness negatively
reinforces studying
• Escape contingency
(diagram next, then I will explain why studying increases as the exam gets closer)
25
SO 7C: Diagram of the Escape Contingency
MO (aversiveness):R (studying)-->Sr- (decrease in aversiveness)
1. Pre-existing aversiveness is an MO
2. Studying is the escape behavior
3. Reinforcement is the decrease in the pre-existing
aversiveness which negatively reinforces studying
*Note that the term is “aversive,” not “adversive”
26
SO 7B: So, what produces the scallop in studying behavior?
That is, why do (most) students study more and more as the
exam gets closer?
• Because the aversiveness increases as the exam
gets closer and you have not completed the study
assignment
• That is, the pre-existing aversiveness, the MO
becomes stronger and stronger the closer the
exam if you have not completed the assignment
• Just like the colder you are, the more “motivated”
you will be to emit behaviors that will make you
warmer (i.e., put on a coat, turn up the heat in the
car, etc.)
(Note carefully, the studying does not become aversive, the situation becomes aversive;
27
or the hungrier you are, or the more tired you are)
SO 7D: Again, what reinforces studying?
• To repeat: The reinforcement for studying is the
decrease in the pre-existing aversive condition;
immediate negative reinforcement (escape)
– As soon as you study, there is a decrease in the
aversiveness
– The more you study, the greater the decrease
• The reinforcement for studying is NOT the avoidance
of a bad grade on the exam/assignment
– The grade is too delayed, it does not occur within 5 - 60
seconds after studying
28
(many students get this wrong; last slide on this topic)
SO 8: End-of-Course Activity
Why does an end-of-course activity (like a final exam or
paper worth 50%-75% of the student’s grade) weaken the
relation between the exam grades and the course grades?
Students can quite correctly believe that a low score on an
earlier exam or assignment can be compensated for by a
high score on the final exam or paper.
But what often happens? You run out of time because all of
your courses “kick in at the end.”
So no final exam in Dickinson’s PSY 4600:
Each exam is worth the same number of points
29
SO 9: Reasons professors give for their unwillingness to
clearly specify what is going to be on the exam
Many professors are highly critical of study objectives on
the grounds that we are “spoon feeding” students.
• Professors often give two reasons for not wanting to specify
what is going to be on the exam
– You will only learn what the professor tells you to learn;
without specification you will learn all of the other things
you wouldn’t learn if you didn’t know what was going to
be on the exam
• Really? If you are examined over 4-5 chapters, do you really
learn everything in those 4-5 chapters?
– Part of the scholar’s repertoire consists of bringing order
out of chaos and dealing with the instructor’s vague
assignments is a good opportunity to learn this skill
• Really, again!!! (read material out of “interest”)
30
SO 10: In large enrollment classes what controls
attendance and what does NOT control attendance?
• What does?
How essential the lecture material is for doing well
on the exam/assignments (note material in red!)
• What does NOT?
How interesting or inspirational the lectures are
Faculty do not have to do “dog and pony shows” to
get students to attend class.
Of course, all things being equal, interesting is
better than boring!
(shy)
31
SO 11: The three conditions under which the threat
of a low grade will NOT motivate studying
• If the grade is not important to the student
• The relation between studying for the exam
and the grade on the exam is not clear
• The relation between the exam grade and the
course grade is not clear
32
SO 13: Exam frequency and motivation to study
Provide two reasons why exams that are given once every three
weeks (let alone two exams per semester) will not have the same
motivational effect as exams that are given weekly.
1. The procrastination scallop: most students will wait to
study until the week of the exam
I require 6 or more hours of outside studying for each
exam (for a C), if I gave an exam every three weeks
instead of every 1 1/2 weeks, it would require 12 or more
hours of study. If I gave just a mid-term and final, that
would be about 7 weeks, which would require 27 hours
or more of studying.
It is absurd to think that students will spend 27 hours
studying for the exam during that one week.
(one reason why professors use norm-referenced grading - no one does well)
33
SO 13: Second reason why exams that are given
once every three weeks (let alone twice a semester)
will not have the same motivational effect as weekly exams.
2. I have 1 1/2 hours for the exam, regardless of how often I
give the exams. If I gave an exam only once every three
weeks, I could not sample as much material from the
study objectives - that is I could not ask questions over
as many of the study objectives
– Why and how does this affect student studying?
Students know that I cannot test over all of the study
objectives, hence they will begin to try to guess which
ones I will ask and not study all of the objectives.
They will “gamble” about which items I will have test
questions over
(faculty who give out 70 or more SOs for the exam and then only ask questions on very small
proportion)
34
SO 14: Why learning can’t be fun and easy*
Many argue that learning should be fun and easy.
Not so, says Michael. He says it can’t be fun and
easy for two reasons.
•Intensity: there is too much to learn in too little time
•Assessment: there is a chance that the student will
not get the grade he/she wants on the exams and
assignments
Note carefully, it is NOT simply that the exams and
assignments are given - if every student got an A on
every exam/assignment, then assessment would not
cause students a problem
*Learn each factor and be able to explain them.
35
Not for exam but why should grades be emphasized?
Grades are the primary motivative variable,
which means that current standing in the
class and progress toward the final grade
should always be clear and frequently
brought to the student’s attention.
Hence, the grade sheet.
36
Questions/Comments
on the Michael article?
37
Unit 4: Teaching Technology Introduction
In this part of the unit we are going to be looking at three
evidence-based instructional technologies for primary
and secondary schools:
• Direct Instruction - Engelmann, Becker & Carnine
• Precision Teaching - Lindsley
• MimioSprout and MimioReading–web-based
reading programs developed by a team of
behavior analysts (2002)
– Greg Stikeleather, Dept. alumni award
(evidence-based, proven through research to be effective, Woods Edge?)
Engelmann, BA in education. Becker & Carnine - behavioral psychologists;
Oakland Academy, Arbor Academy, Forrest Academy - Foundation for behavioral
resources)
38
Teaching Technology Intro
• Educational crisis in this country
• Our students rank about last in math/science of all
industrialized countries in the world
• Reports indicate that this generation of children will be the
first in the history of our country that will be less well
educated than their parents
• 40% of our 4th-graders read below basic levels
• This summer it was reported that only 17% of high school
seniors in MI are academically prepared for college
• Yet schools and educators have been very slow to adopt
empirically-validated instructional technology
• Probably the biggest disappointment of behavior
analysts
(read some of the material in the course pack - not behavior analysts)
39
Direct Instruction Basics
• Task analysis is completed for all instructional
material
• Material is presented in small steps so students
will be successful the first time
• Material is sequenced so if students master the
prerequisite material they will be successful
• Scripts are used to insure correct implementation
and student success - based on research
• Students are placed in small groups of 5 - 10
• Students respond aloud on cue
• Immediate feedback, both reinforcement and
corrective is provided
40
Precision Teaching Basics
• Often use DI material/lessons
• Adds a fluency component - accuracy plus speed of
responding is assessed (# corrects per minute). Based on
rate of response used in behavioral research
• Timed practice, graph results - only 30% of time is spent
on instruction, 70% on practice
• Students work with each other during practice sessions
• Students do not progress to the next lesson until fluency
“aims” are met - all have the same aims which are based
on research
• Often combined with a token economy system in which
students earn points for results and appropriate
instructional behaviors (feet on floor, eye contact, etc.)
• Often report cards are provided for parents daily
(before SO16, show you some results of DI, PT: SOs a little out of order)
41
Ogden “Og” Lindsley:
Precision Teaching
42
SO16: Introduction to Engelmann’s early study
(1970)
• Some maintain that 60-80% of “intelligence” is genetic and
only 20-40% is a function of learning; that is you have it or
you don’t and if your parents and grandparents didn’t have
it, you won’t either (Bell Curve, Murray & Herrnstein)
• They also maintain that a person’s IQ cannot be changed
much after the first couple of years
• Therefore, early educational programs (such as Head
Start) and social programs are a waste of tax payer dollars.
(What is intelligence? What is measured by IQ tests? Math, verbal, social situations
and sequences)
43
SO16: Englemann’s early study (1970)
• Participants were all 4 years old:
– 15 disadvantaged children exposed to traditional
teaching methods
– 15 disadvantaged children exposed to DI
– 15 middle class children exposed to DI
• Independent variable:
– DI for language concept, arithmetic, and reading
– Three 20-min instructional sessions per day for two
years
– Total of 96 instructional hours
• Dependent variable:
– Stanford-Binet IQ test scores
• Experimental design (Quasi-experimental design):
– Between-group experimental design
44
SO16: Summary of Results
• IQ scores after two years
– Disadvantaged four-year olds exposed to DI
increased their IQ scores by about 25 points
(95.33 to 121.08)
– Disadvantaged four-year olds exposed to
traditional education increased their IQ
scores by only about 5 points (94.50 to
99.61)
– Disadvantaged and advantaged four-year
olds exposed to DI had similar IQ scores
(121.08 and 123.43, respectively)
45
SO16: Results of Engelmann’s Study: IQ
Scores
Group
Before
1 Year
2 Years
Disadv.
DI
95.33
112.47
121.08
Disadv.
Trad. Ed.
94.50
102.57
99.61
Middle-class
DI
--------
--------
123.43
46
SO16: Implications
• IQ scores can be affected by instruction and
changed after the very early stages of life
(argues against heredity)
• DI can eliminate differences in the IQ scores of
disadvantaged and advantaged children,
differences that are not eliminated by traditional
educational methods
47
Snyder Article: Morningside Academy,
Seattle, WA
• Morningside Academy
– Private school (tuition): Dr. Kent Johnson
– Combines Precision Teaching with Direct Instruction
– Dr. Johnson offers 2-4 week practicum opportunities in
the summer to graduate students (web site address is
in the SOs)
• While usually restricted to graduate students, our WMU
undergraduates have been accepted, depending upon letters
of support from us
• Scholarships, but students must fund their own housing and
meals
48
(jack christensen, garrett warrilow)
Kent Johnson
49
Morningside Academy, cont.
• Money-back guarantee for tuition
– If a student does not gain at least two years or more
in all skill-deficit areas in one year, Morningside
refunds 100% of the tuition
• Success rate; years different than article
– In the 30 years of its operations, Morningside has
never refunded a student’s tuition
• Serves primarily students diagnosed with
learning disability problems and ADHD who
have failed in the regular school system
(years different because the school started in 1980 and article was published in 1992)
50
Morningside Academy, cont. again
• SO 19: Average gains in grade levels for reading,
language arts, and math for the last two years reported
in the article (89-90 and 90-91)?
3.07 per academic year!!
Note that these gains are primarily for at-risk kids.
Those diagnosed as learning disabled or ADHD.
51
(~3.0 is fine)
Morningside Academy’s Adult Literacy Program
(Not for the Exam)
• Federally-funded literacy program through YMCA
• Pilot program for adults, Precision Teaching
– Did not know whether adults would like PT and thus
attend instructional sessions
– Did not know how well PT would work with these
individuals, given their generally low skill levels
• 32 participants
– Some were homeless
– Some were in and out of jail
52
Representative Results:
Morningside Adult Literacy Pilot Program
Person/
Subject
Average
Gain
Expected
Gain
Actual
Gain
Grade
Level
Change
6.9 to 11.1
KR
Math
1 month/
1 month
.5 month/ 4 yr 2 mo/
1 month 2 mo
WB
Math
Same as
above
Same as
above
2 yr 7 mo/
1 mo
8.1 to 10.8
DM
Reading
Same
Same
8 yr 4 mo/
1 mo
3.6 to adult
JK
Writing
Same
Same
7 yr 3 mo/
3 mo
5.8 to adult
1 month = 20 hours of instruction
53
What guarantee does Morningside make its
adult clients based on the results?
(Again Not for the Exam)
Each adult learner will gain two years or more
per month in reading, writing and math skills if
those adults meet the requirement of
attending for two hours per day, four days a
week.
Notice that is only 20 hours of instruction per
month!
(now back to SO 15)
54
SO15: Three reasons why traditional educators object
to Direct Instruction & Precision Teaching
If these methods are so good, why aren’t they being taught
in schools of education and why don’t teachers like them?
• They are not self-directed; that is the methods are too
controlled by the teacher
• They are not individualized; every child/learner is exposed to
the same material in the same sequence and must meet the
same goals
• They do not focus on affective outcomes - that is, selfesteem or making students “feel good about themselves.
(philosophical reasons - educational philosophy child centered learning development)
55
SO15 NFE: Another reason
• Teachers feel the scripted lessons take away from their
flexibility and creativity.
– Why did I go to school and get a teaching degree if I am
being told exactly what to say and when to say it?
• Siefert Elementary School article at the end of the SOs
– 3rd graders - Proficient or better (after one year of DI)
• Reading: 22% to 57%
• Math: 11% to 48%
• Social studies: 13% to 61%
• Some teachers still objected and asked to be transferred
• Kelly Collin, a 1st grade teacher:
“Teachers resent it because it is so scripted. But is it about
me being happy or the students learning?”
56
SO20 NFE: What factors are often blamed for
the educational crisis?
• Traditional educators tend to blame Johnny or Suzie, the
culture at large, socio-economic reasons - Johnny can’t
read because he comes from a bad neighborhood or bad
home.
• Traditional educators often see the key(s) to be a longer
school year, higher pay for teachers, right now no recess,
etc.
• DI & PT advocates maintain that the key to solving the
educational crisis in this country is better instructional
material: If Johnny or Suzie is not learning the
instructional material is the blame, not Johnny, Suzie or
their home environment
57
Blame everything but instruction
• Alessi (1988), a bit dated but I expect still relevant
For about 5000 kids, school psychologists reported the
cause of learning problems
Percentages came out like this:
– The curriculum caused 0% of the problems
– The teaching practices caused 0% of the problems
– The school administration caused 0% of the problems
– The home environment caused 10-20% of the problems
• Punch line – next slide
58
The Punch Line
• The child caused 100% of the problems
• Not one of 5000 problems was presumed to be
caused by school practices
59
SO 23: What is fluency?
• The rationale behind fluency first
– We usually measure only accuracy of performance - 100%, 90%,
etc.
– Rate of performance or fluency is also important
– If one child scores 100% on a math test and completes it in one
hour, but another scores 100% and completes it in one-half hour,
is their performance equal or is the second child’s performance
better?
• PT not only measures accuracy but also speed of
performance
• Only 30% of classroom time is taken by the delivery of
instruction; 70% is spent practicing using work sheets.
• Students take several 1-minute timings and chart their
performance on a graph for the timings
• So, back to the question, what is fluency? (next slide)
60
SO23: Fluency
So, SO23, what is fluency?
“Fluency” is a measure of accuracy plus
speed.
NFE, but how is fluency specifically measured?
The number of correct answers
per minute during timed practice.
61
Not for the exam: Fluency Aims (standards/goals)
Fluency aims are based on research to:
• Insure retention/maintenance over time
• Enable the skill to generalize to settings other than
the one in which it was taught
– If you teach basic math, you want kids to be able to
buy things and count correct change
• Enable correct responding in spite of distractions in
the environment and in spite of being “tired.”
Because aims are empirically developed to achieve
the above results, aims are not individualized. Every
child must meet the same aims before proceeding to
the next lesson/material.
62
SO24: Rationale for scripted lessons
• In DI, every lesson is scripted and the teacher
is to follow the script exactly
• Why?
The particular wording, examples and
sequences have been pre-tested to insure the
success of the students.
Not for the exam, but teachers do not have the time,
nor is it their job, to conduct research on instructional
material. They are practitioners not researchers They
already have a very difficult, time-consuming job (and
class sizes are getting larger all the time).
63
SO24: Sample DI instruction for teaching “over”
Teacher wording
Teacher wording
The ball is not over
Is the ball over?
The ball is not over
Is the ball over?
The ball is over
Is the ball over?
The ball is over
Is the ball over?
The ball is over
Is the ball over?
SO24: DI instruction, generalization for “over”
Is the ball over the kitten?
Is the cup over the saucer?
Is the pencil over the table?
Is the star over the frying pan?
SO24: Examples of DI lessons, reading
SOs 25-29: Introduction to Watkins’ article:
Project Follow-Through
Kathy Watkins
Carl Binder
• Largest study that has evaluated
the effectiveness of different
instructional systems
• Government-funded study
• Conducted over 30 years ago
• The study began in 1968 and we
have had the results since 1977
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SOs 25-29: Project Follow-Through, cont.
• Three major conceptual categories of
educational systems
– Basic Skills
– Cognitive-Conceptual
– Affective-Cognitive
• Examined 20 different instructional methods
that fell into one of the three categories above
in 15 different school districts
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SOs 25&26: Areas of emphasis for each conceptual
category and the category for DI
• Basic Skills (DI)
– Basic skills: reading, arithmetic, spelling, etc.
• Cognitive-Conceptual
– Learning to learn
– Problem solving skills
• Affective-Cognitive
– Development of good self-concept
– Learning to learn
(only need to learn the primary –first one, although I have also indicated secondary)
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SO27: Results I have asked you to learn
To be fair to each model, the researchers also measured
the children’s basic skills, cognitive skills, and affect
• DI was the only model to produce gains in all three
areas measured: basic skills, cognitive skills, and
affect
• DI ranked first in basic skills, cognitive skills and affect
• Educational models, other than those that fell into
the Basic Skills category, (that is, all those in the
cognitive-conceptual and affective-cognitive
categories) had poorer results than the traditional
educational systems currently being used
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SO28: DI & PT ranked first and second in affective
skills even though neither targets or emphasizes
them
What theory of self-concept isn’t supported by these results?
In order to learn, you must first have a good self-concept and a positive
attitude toward learning. That is, a good self-concept is a prerequisite for
learning.
Suzie & Johnny must feel good about themselves before they can learn.
What theory of self-concept is supported by the results?
Success in learning produces a good self concept.
Suzy & Johnny will feel good about themselves if they are successful in
learning.
(pretty interesting given that the affective-cognitive models targeted affect directly.
Also interesting because traditional educators still object to DI& PT on that ground)
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SO29: Behavioral diagram of the relation
between learning and a good self-concept
Sr
R
----> Sc
Academic activities
Signs of success
CS
CR
Good self-concept
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(self-concept emotional response)
Project Follow-Through Wrap Up (not for the exam)
• DI was shown to be the most effective instructional
system
• In spite of that, the governmental agency responsible for
disseminating effective instructional systems to school
districts around the country, endorsed 22 as effective and
packaged them for distribution
• Among those disseminated were those that had failed to
improve academic achievement (out of “fairness”)
• Funding guidelines were changed so that the programs
that were the least successful were given more funding
than those that were the most successful (on the grounds
that $ would help the least successful)
(problem is not the teachers, school districts)
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SOs 30-35: MimioSprout and MimioReading, web
reading programs designed by behavioral psychologists
• Headsprout founders and team includes:
– Dr. Kent Johnson, founder of Morningside
– Greg Stikeleather, BA in psychology from WMU
• Developed and ran Apple Computer’s first usability testing laboratory
• Started two software companies; one was acquired by Microsoft, one was
acquired by Netscape
–
–
–
–
Dr. Joe Layng, Head of Morningside’s Malcolm X program
Dr. Janet Twyman, past President of ABA
Kelly Hobbins, BA in psychology from WMU
Melinda Sota, MA in psychology from WMU
• Put on the web in 2002
• Cost $6 million to develop the first 40 lessons for
MimioSprout (the initial program put on the web) – there
are now 80 lessons for this program
(SOs are very straightforward, but I just wanted to introduce you to this
- it’s terrific)
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Greg Stikeleather
Melinda Sota, WMU MA
Janet Twyman
Jennifer Clayton
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SOs 30 & 32: Why are the MimioSprout and
MimioReading programs important?
• How many children have literacy problems in our country?
– 40%
• Over what percentage of our nation’s fourth graders score
below basic reading levels?
– 40%
• What is the probability that a child will remain a poor reader
at the end of fourth grade if the child is a poor reader at
the end of first grade?
– 90%
We need to get to children when they are young and
teach them the basics
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SO 31, NFE: MimioSprout stresses phonics - why?
• Research has shown that phonics is essential in order to
teach children to read.
– This is in direct conflict with reading approaches based
on “whole word” teaching/learning.
• Research has also shown that the absence of explicit
phonics instruction can cause learning problems that put
learners at a permanent educational disadvantage
unless corrected by the end of third grade.
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About MimioSprout and MimioReading:
Not for the exam
• Incorporates PT concepts of fluency and charting/graphing
performance of each component skill
• The program appears to children as
– As in interactive cartoon
– Learn reading skills interacting with cartoon-based episodes in
Space World, Dinosaur World, Undersea World, and Jungle World
• They have the same type of refund program as
Morningside Academy
– For school systems: Full refund to schools for the price
of the product for each Kindergarten or 1st grade
student who is not at or above grade level upon
completion
– Full refund to individual parents who buy it as well
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About MimoSprout, cont.
• They first did lab testing - before they put the program on
the internet. (not for the exam)
Standard for most activities was that 90% of learners
would get 90% of the items/questions correct the first time
• SO34A: Once the developmental work in their lab was
completed, they tested it on the internet. How many
learners participated in the internet testing?
– Over 1,000
• SO34B: What were the results of that testing?
– Over 90% of the learners got over 90% of the
items/questions correct the very first time they
answered them
The bold faced part is very important in 34B!
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About MimoSprout, cont. again
(Not for the Exam)
• What is their goal for the entire 80-lesson MimioSprout
Early Reading Program?
– Learners who consistently score at or above grade
level, and
– Kindergarten children with reading skills typical of a
mid-second grade learner
• Standardized test outcome data indicate they have
accomplished that goal (testing is on-going)
• Individual parents can purchase the MimioSprout reading
program for $199.00
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The End
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Questions?
Instructional assistance hours: Monday, 10/14
5:30-7:00 PM, Wood Hall First Floor Lounge
Amber is “on tap” this time
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