Gods and Cult 1. Divinities Nature of the divine in Greaco-Roman Culture Variety of divinities – major (Mars, Jupiter, June etc) and minor some had many responsibilities other one narrowly defined: Some more popular than others, i.e. god Silvanus, a rural god appears in over 1100 inscriptions from Western Roman Empire Often many versions: Juno Lacina, goddess of childbirth - very different from the martial Juno worshipped in Rome. Wearing goatskin cloak, spear and shield Some deities are aspects of the physical world; not anthropomorphised Categories: perceptible by intellect or perceptible by senses: Neptune/Poseidon – represented as both: The actual sea itself - it can be touched, And the god Neptune/Poseidon – the god of the sea Some gods – shade into abstractions, i.e. Aphrodite/Venus; Fortuna (Fortune), Some just abstract concepts: Spes (Hope), Pietas (Piety), etc. terms for divinities Greek Theos/thea - theoi Latin deus/dea - di Often ancient writers do not distinguish between the gods and god in the same passage Other terms: Greek - daimon, heros Heros (hero, heroes) intermediary between divine and human - Romans very little evidence of this category (perhaps to some extent the manes or divi parentes (gods Manes/spirits of the underworld or deified ancestors) some characters from Roman myths associated with already existing Italian Gods: Aeneas = Indiges; Romulus = Quirinus Latin: numen, genius daimones Many uses of term - includes gods, guardian Spirits, spirits of the dead, sometimes even souls of living; Socrates: gods – daimones Christians reserved – theos or deus for what they regarded the one and true god Christian used of daimon (daemon) for the Graeco-Roman deities – whom they considered malevolent spirits Hence the English ‘demon’ - acquired a negative connotation Heros (hero) Poetry - the great heroes of myth (i.e. Achilles, Odysseus), legends – hence English hero, heroes A hero (heros) – of worship = denotes a human being who continues to exert power after death and has to be propitiated through prayers and offerings. A hero commonly has a divine and a human parent and is mortal – he dies Traditionally: founders of cities, and some figures from myth Hero more important in Greek mythology and religion than in Roman numen Divine power Divine will Some writers used it as almost a synonym for deus especially when referring to deity of somewhat uncertain identity genius Originally the divine alter-ego or guardian spirit of an individual (usually male) Guardian spirit of female often – iuno Over time genius used more widely and was applied to any locality or institution i.e. particular buildings, mountains, springs, woods, etc., - became guardian spirits of places Cult (cultus) – religious action Any religious action – form of communication with the divine Cultus central to Roman religion English term cult - negative overtones Latin cultus – worship (the various practices and rituals employed in worship) Enormous range of practices in Rome Emphasis on correct repetitions of formulae Main forms: 1. request for benefits from gods, i.e. in prayers, sacrifices and other offerings 2. Divinations or interpretation of messages from the gods 3. rituals – such as purifications and initiations which in various ways transformed a person’s situation with respect to the divine Prayers Oral, often improvised to fit occasion, Best sources – literary, poems written in form of prayers, or descriptive narratives Most traditional prayers for public cults lost Evidence suggests the following format: began with invocation that detailed god’s name, functions, qualities. Ritual continued Followed by central section: reasons why deity should grant request: i.e. evidence of person’s devotion, piety, appeals to god’s beneficence, or reminder of his past blessings, etc., This Section also contained the vow: the promise of offering Final part – the petition, ranging from specific request such as – please help my child recover from illness – to general appeal - look at us favourably, Often focus on first part - expressed in lengthy hymns (Greek hymnos) focus of hymns to praise more than on the petition i.e. Homeric hymns to Dionysios, Demeter, reciprocity Do ut des -” I grant you this, so that you will give me that in exchange.” Quid pro quo - idea - I offer you a benefit and ask for one in return Concept must be understood in the context of a culture (Graeco-Roman) where social relationships are based on reciprocal benefits See this already in Homer’s epics – gift-giving and giftreceiving central to relationships Rome: when benefit given, the person who receives the benefit owes - gratia - and can be called upon to return the benefit Forms of offerings wide range – flowers, cakes, incense, Libations = liquids – wine most common, Milk, oil, honey, even water Blood sacrifice – very common: the ritual slaughter of an animal - domestic (sheep, pig, cow) = symbol of piety Emperors often shown making sacrifices, displaying their pietas (duty and affection for the gods) Neither the emperor or any other magistrate/priest carried out the actual slaughter of a victim which was considered a pollution – that was done by the victiarius , normally a slave – an individual who stood outside society. Marcus Aurelius (161-180 CE) performing a sacrifice The Sacrifice Elaborate ritual Procession – victim led to the altar Altar normally outdoors in front of a temple Symbolic purification of space around altar Call for ritual silence Musicians played pipes to drown out unwanted noises Preliminary offer of grain (Greeks), incense (Roman). In the previous image – emperor throws grains of incense onto small brazier next to big altar Followed by the actual killing of animal – performed by a professional victiarius who also carved up carcass A portion offered to the deity, rest cooked on spot and all had a feast Communicating with the gods Basic elements of sacrifice same in Greece and Rome Romans covered heads when sacrificing to express piety Prayers and sacrifice – the two ways people communicated with the gods Divination Believed gods communicated with humans Divination – interpretation of divine communication Wide variety of forms: Oracles were consulted – Romans went to Delphi just like the Greeks interpretation of dreams; observation of the flight of birds; interpretation of prodigies (unusual events seen as significant) and as messages from the gods that needed to be interpreted – i.e. by haruspices or Sybilline books Christians and Muslims consider practice of divination as mere fortune telling Divination not an attempt to see into the future Romans believed divination would give people insight into the will and mood of gods Whether gods opposed an action or supported it The Function of Ordinary Roman Sacrifice pietas – a combination of duty and affection to the gods ( also to family members, friends, patrons, etc.) Sacrifice demonstrates pietas Sacrifice cleanses both vitium (intended transgression) and impietas (unintended transgression) Pietas legitimized the right of individuals to govern; Role of magistrates: to maintain the pax deorum (peace of the gods) pietas as expressed in (expressed in public acts of sacrificial devotion) of Rome’s magistrates guaranteed the favor of the gods and therefore the welfare of the state Roman Blood Sacrifice Roman religious ritual turned on offering the blood of sacrificial victims in exchange for goodwill of the gods Under exceptional circumstances this could include human victims - devotio devotio could be a self-sacrifice – a vow made by a commander before a campaign in return for a victory. Three times in the late Republic 228, 216, 113 BCE, Romans buried two Gauls and two Greeks alive in the Forum Boarium Executions in the arena including those of conclusions These three cult practices: prayer, sacrifice, divination – common to almost all religious traditions in Roman empire 2 other common practices: Purification - rituals to remove pollution (i.e. Blood crimes) Initiation – ritual which put individual into privileged relationship with deity conclusions Cult activities not restricted to specific times or places People incorporated prayers and sacrifices into wide variety of daily activities Basic beliefs implied by practices: belief in the existence of superhuman forces that were concerned with human behaviour and responded to human intervention and communicated with human world