GENERAL
PSYCHOLOGY
LECTURE 11
DEVELOPMENT
Visiting Assistant PROFESSOR YEE-SAN TEOH
Department of Psychology
National Taiwan University
Unless noted, the course materials are licensed under Creative Commons
Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Taiwan (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0)
R I S K S I N T H E P R E N ATA L
ENVIRONMENT
B I R T H C O M P L I C AT I O N S
RISKS IN PRENATAL ENVIRONMENT
The Effects of Teratogens
Teratogens = external agents that may cause
developmental deviations in the fetus.
Include environmental factors and characteristics of the
mother.
Effects include physical defects, mental impairments,
changes in life experiences.
EFFECTS OF TERATOGENS
1. Effects occur largely during critical periods
(e.g. vulnerable period for heart is 20-40 days after conception)
2. Specific effects
(e.g. Rubella in mother affects mainly fetus’s heart, eyes, brain)
3. Maternal / fetal genotypes may counteract a teratogen’s effects
(e.g. Some genotype is more resistant to effects of Rubella)
EFFECTS OF TERATOGENS
4. Effects of one teratogen may intensify effects of another
(e.g. Malnutrition in mother exacerbates negative effects of
drugs)
5. Different teratogens may produce same effect
(e.g. Rubella & consumption of drug such as quinine =>
deafness)
6. Longer exposure intensifies effects, increases risk of harm
(e.g. Consistent exposure to polluted water = more severe
harm)
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
Nicotine & Alcohol
Heroine, Cocaine, Other drugs
Environmental Toxins
MATERNAL CHARACTERISTICS
Age
Choice of diet
Emotional state
Diseases & disorders
Parasitic, bacterial, viral infections
P R E M AT U R I T Y &
LOW BIRTHWEIGHT
PREMATURITY & LOW BIRTHWEIGHT
Premature/preterm babies = born before full
gestational period, at/< 37 weeks.
Low birthweight = preterm or small-for-date babies,
< 5lbs.
http://stuff2share.com/handbook-of-parenting-e-book.html
Handbook of Parenting 2nd vol 1, Children and Parenting / Marc H. Bornstein P329
CONSEQUENCES OF VERY LOW BIRTHWEIGHT
• Some catch up in motor and intellectual development,
but some continue to show cognitive deficits (Goldberg &
DeVitto, 2002).
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0891524505002555
• Problems
in academic achievement, hyperactivity, motor
Journal of Pediatric Health Care / Visual Perceptual Skills in Children Born With Very Low Birth Weights
skills,P363–368
speech & hearing disorders (Anderson et al., 2003).
• Adverse environmental circumstances － long-term
developmental difficulties (Goldberg & DeVitto, 2002).
LONG-TERM EFFECTS OF PREMATURITY
Particularly marked & enduring for economically
disadvantaged families (Klebanov et al, 2001).
Often combined with effects of :
(i)
Child responsiveness
(ii) Mother’s competence
(iii) Family’s environmental stresses
(iv) Social support (family, nursing staff, self-help groups)
(Gross et al., 1997)
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0193397307001463
Long-term maternal effects of early childhood intervention: Findings from
the Infant Health and Development Program (IHDP)
NEW BABY’S REFLEXES
• Involuntary response to
external stimuli.
• Some disappear during 1st year, some replaced by
voluntary responses that are learnt (e.g. sucking).
• Ensure survival, e.g. eyeblink shields eyes from light.
NEW BABY’S REFLEXES
• Abnormalities in 1st few days/weeks help:
(i) Identify visual & hearing problems
(ii) Predict abnormal functions that may appear later.
•
Weak, absent, unusually strong reflexes, reflexes that
don’t disappear when expected -> neurological problems
EXAMPLES OF NEWBORN’S REFLEXES
Reflex
Method of
Testing
Baby’s
Response
Significance of
Response
Knee Jerk
Tap on tendon
below kneecap
Quickly extends
or kicks leg
Weak/absent
Permanent, most
in depressed
pronounced in first
babies or those 2 days
with muscular
disease
Babinski
reflex
Stroke bottom
of foot from
heel to toes
Big toes curves, Absent in
other toes fan & defects of
curl
lower spine
Temporary, usually
disappears end of
1st yr
Rooting
response
Stroke baby’s
cheek lightly
Turns head
toward finger,
opens mouth
Temporary,
disappears at abt
3-4mo, becomes
voluntary
Absent in
depressed
babies
Develop-mental
Course
MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
• In first 2 yrs of life, reaching out and
grasping an object are key motor skills.
• Success at abt 5 months.
• By 1st yr – begin to use objects as tools (e.g. spoon),
gestures in social communication (Goldin-Meadow, 2006).
LOCOMOTION – LEARNING TO WALK
- Walking skills are determined by interplay of
(i)
Emotion & Motivation
(ii) Perception
(iii) Attention
(iv) Posture
(v) Anatomy
•
Increased independence allows exploration of
environments and contact with other people.
THE ROLE OF EXPERIENCE & CULTURE IN
MOTOR GROWTH
- Zambia: mothers leave infants sitting alone for long periods
of time, opportunities for motor skill practice . (Hopkins &
Westra, 1988).
- Jamaica: regular massage of infants, practice in stepping.
(Hopkins & Westra, 1990)
- China: cramped living environment, restricted room for
crawling (Campos et al., 2000)
http://www.nlc-bnc.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk1/tape9/PQDD_0005/MQ42044.pdf
INFANT MOTOR DEVELOPMENT AND THE HOME ENVIRONMENT /Andrea L Abbott P4
http://www.nlc-bnc.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk1/tape9/PQDD_0005/MQ42044.pdf
INFANT MOTOR DEVELOPMENT AND THE HOME ENVIRONMENT /Andrea L Abbott P4
http://www.temple.edu/devscilab/732_wiki/MotorDevelopment.pdf
Motor Development /Karen E. Adolph and Sarah E. Berger P31
HEARING
• Newborn’s hearing is very well developed, but not as well
as adult’s (Saffran et al., 20006).
• Babies as young as 2 days old prefer human voice over
other sounds, particularly high in pitch (Hoff, 2005)
• Preference for melodious vs non-melodious sounds.
(Winner, 2006)
• Challenge: hearing difficulties are hard to diagnose,
deafness not apparent until 2.5-3 yrs.
http://www.waisman.wisc.edu/infantlearning/publications/SaffranWerkerWerner2006.pdf
http://gradworks.umi.com/3404420.pdf
VISION
HOW BABIES SEE
THEIR WORLDS
CLARITY
• Newborn’s visual acuity is poor unless object held
close to face.
• Improves rapidly, by 6 months-1 yr, within normal
adult range.
• By 4 months, color vision similar to adult’s (Keller &
Arterberry, 2006)
A PREFERENCE FOR FACES
•
Newborns as young as 30mins old show preference for
facelike images (Mondloch et al., 1999).
http://www.psy.vanderbilt.edu/faculty/gauthier/publi/Gauthier02_chapter.pdf
Face expertise and category specialization in the humanoccipitotemporal cortex / Isabel Gauthier, Ph.D. P6
DEPTH PERCEPTION
• By 3-5mo, babies can coordinate both eyes, begin to see
depth using stereoscopic vision (sense of 3rd spatial
dimension) (Birch, 1993).
• The Visual Cliff experiment (Gibson & Walk, 1960) shows
that babies 6-14mo would not cross fake cliff to their
mothers, even with encouragement.
• Interestingly, fear of heights does not exist in very young
infants, presumably because they are unable to crawl
then (Campos et al., 1970, 1992).
http://www.journalofvision.org/content/9/6/9.full
不確定能否合理使用
http://www.wadsworth.com/psychology_d/templates/studen
t_resources/0155060678_rathus/ps/ps05.html
The "Visual Cliff" / ELEANOR J. GIBSON AND RICHARD D. WALK
http://artsci.wustl.edu/~pboyer/PBoyerHomeSite/articles/2010BoyerBergstromTh
reat-DetectionChildhood.pdf
Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews / P. Boyer, B. Bergstrom P4
PIAGET’S THEORY
• Children construct their understanding of reality from
their own experiences.
• Over development children acquire qualitatively new
ways of thinking and understanding of the world.
• Development occurs through organization &
adaptation.
ORGANIZATION
Over development, children organize their knowledge
into increasingly complex cognitive structures –
schemas.
Growth + experience = schemas shift from motor
activities to mental activities – operations.
ADAPTATION –
2 COMPLEMENTARY PROCESSES
1. Assimilation
-
Fit new experiences into current cognitive schemas
2. Accommodation
-
Adjust current schemas to fit the new experiences
PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
SENSORIMOTOR
PREOPERATIONAL
CONCRETE
OPERATIONS
FORMAL OPERATIONS
0-2 yrs
2-7 yrs
Action schemes & sensory
experiences
Object Permanence
Symbolic Function
Animistic Thinking
Egocentrism, Centration
Intuition
7-12 yrs
Logical reasoning of physically
present things
Conservation, Reversibility
Decentration
12
onwards
Flexibility & complexity of
thought processes
Hypothesis testing
Alternatives in problem-solving
IMPORTANT POINTS
Stages are built through experience, so children do not
reach stages at exactly same ages.
All children pass through stages in same order, no
skipping.
SENSORIMOTOR STAGE
• Object permanence – understanding that objects and
people continue to exist independent of the child’s
seeing or interacting with them.
• Test – Ask child to look for object that has been
moved.
PREOPERATIONAL STAGE
• Symbolic Function – The ability to use symbols
(images, words), gestures, to represent objects and
events in the world.
• Animistic Thinking – Attribute life to inanimate objects.
• Egocentrism – Tendency to view the world from one’s
own perspective and to have difficulty seeing things
from another’s viewpoint.
• Test – Three-mountain Test: Child is asked to identify
picture that illustrates mountain viewpoint of a doll
seated away from the child.
Challenges to Egocentrism finding:
Children performed better when
i.
Familiar objects were introduced (Borke, 1979),
ii. Purpose of task was more understandable (hide
from police, Hughes, 1975).
http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/0300443910710103 Page 36
Centration – Focusing attention on only one dimension
or characteristic of an object or situation.
Test – lack of understanding of conservation.
CONCRETE OPERATIONS STAGE
Reversibility – Understanding that steps of a
procedure/operation can be reversed and that the
original state of the object/event can be obtained.
CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN
CONSERVATION UNDERSTANDING
Dasen (1984) – people develop skills and concepts that
are useful in the daily activities required in their
ecocultural settings.
http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00207598408247539
Page 411
Example: Agricultural tribe that deals with quantitative
activities daily – produce, store, and sell food –
develop conservation, measurement skills earlier.
FORMAL OPERATION STAGE IS
NOT UNIVERSAL
• Not all adolescents or adults in all societies reach this
stage and achieve the same flexibility in problemsolving.
• Some cultures emphasize symbolic skills, some do
not.
• Some societies provide a wide range of educational
experiences, some do not.
ATTACHMENT
Strong emotional bond that forms in second half
of 1st yr between infants and their caregivers.
Visible signs – warm greetings, active efforts to
make contact, proximity in unfamiliar situations
Enhances effectiveness of parent socialization –
children eager to conform to parents’ goals and
rules
JOHN BOWLBY’S THEORY OF ATTACHMENT
http://psychology.about.com/od/loveandattraction/a/attachment01.htm
• Rooted in infant’s instinctual responses that are
important for the protection and survival of the
species.
• Responses/reflexes (e.g. crying, smiling) elicit
parental care and protection.
• Parental response promotes contact between child
and parent.
• Children and their parents are biologically
programmed to respond to each other - attachment.
DEVELOPMENT OF ATTACHMENT
Innate Preference for humans over inanimate objects
Early learning of discrimination between familiar and
unfamiliar people
Babies develop attachment to specific people – regular
caregivers
EXTENDING THE ATTACHMENT THEORY TO FATHERS
Depends on level of
involvement in caregiving
Lamb (1997,2004) – older
babies showed similar
attachment to mother and
fathers in stranger’s visit to
home
FATHERS
Cultural factors –role as
caregiver, playmate
Play-related attachment
differs according to gender
ASSESSING ATTACHMENT
Mary Ainsworth’s Strange Situation Procedure
(Ainsworth, 1973)
• Attachment can be seen in caregiver-infant interaction
that emphasizes caregiver’s role as secure base.
• SS procedure = testing scenario that assesses and
classifies the type of attachment a caregiver-infant
pair shares.
http://psychology.about.com/od/loveandattraction/ss/attachmentstyle_2.htm
THE STRANGE SITUATION SCENARIO (8/9 MONTHS)
1. Begins with mother and baby in a playroom.
2. Stranger enters, eventually interacts with baby.
3. Mother leaves room.
4. Mother enters – 1st reunion.
5. Baby alone.
6. Stranger enters.
7. Mother enters – 2nd reunion.
8. Stranger leaves.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Ainsworth
FACTORS INFLUENCING ATTACHMENT
Caregiving Style
•
Sensitive care – consistent & responsive caregiving
Parents’ Internal Working Models (Bowlby)
•
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Bowlby
Parents’ mental representation of themselves as children,
their parents, and their prior interactions with their
parents.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Bowlby
Infant Temperament
•
Link between infant temperament and later parentchild attachment is not clear cut.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0890856709628306
•
Depends on social context & support (Sroufe, 1996).
•
Help and support from other family members & friends
enable parents of difficult infants to cope better.
IMPLICATIONS OF ATTACHMENT QUALITY
Securely attached…….
• 2-yr-olds = more enthusiastic, persistent, cooperative,
effective in solving problems.
• 7-yr-olds = more attentive & participative in the
classroom up to 15yrs of age, maintained higher grades.
• Quality of attachment facilitates learning process
• Securely attached children & teenagers are more likely to be:
- Socially competent
- Empathetic
- Peer oriented
- Have more friends
Sense of Self
Cassidy (1998)
- Securely attached 6-yr-olds viewed themselves in positive
way, acknowledged flaws.
- Insecurely attached viewed themselves as perfect or
negative
DEVELOPMENT OF PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR
• Eisenberg (2006) – prosocial behavior increases with age.
• Ability to recognize others’ needs and emotions is important.
• Begins early with behaviors such as caring for siblings & friends,
comforting others in distress.
• By 18 months, children not only approach those in distress but
offer specific kinds of help (offer toy, hug).
• Prosocial tendencies are stable across development.
http://www.education.com/reference/article/prosocial-behavior/
DETERMINANTS OF PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR
Biological Influences
• Human beings have biological predisposition to respond with
empathy.
• Prosocial behavior may have genetic basis.
• Identical twins more alike in prosocial behavior than fraternal twins
(Davis et al., 1994).
• Children with Williams Syndrome (genetic abnormality) are more
sociable, empathetic and prosocial than typical children.
DETERMINANTS OF PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR
Environmental Influences
• Social learning (Eisenberg et al., 2006).
http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093606
• Mothers who are empathetic, sensitive and responsive to emotions.
• Opportunities to engage in prosocial actions (e.g. volunteering)
• Prosocial peer groups reinforces prosocial attitudes.
• TV programs that teach prosocial behavior (e.g. Sesame Street).
• Culture – some emphasize prosocial, cooperative values.
DEVELOPMENT OF AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOR
• Preschool children are more prone to instrumental aggression.
• Older children resort to hostile aggression.
• Older children rely less on physical, begin to use more verbal
aggression (Dodge et al., 2006).
DEVELOPMENT OF AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOR
• Highly aggressive children have more difficulty ‘reading’ others’
intentions – make more hostile attributions of others’ behaviors than
normal (Guerra & Huesmann, 2003).
• Aggressiveness generally remains stable through adulthood – related
to deviant/antisocial behaviors.
DETERMINANTS OF AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOR
Biological Influences
• Genes – identical twins more similar in parents’ ratings of
aggressive behavior than fraternal twins (Dionne et al., 2003)
• Hormones – rise in testosterone levels during adolescence
related to violent offending (Brooks & Reddon, 1996).
• Low Serotonin level – neurotransmitter involved in emotional
states & regulation of attention – higher level of aggression,
especially with high family conflict (Moffitt & Caspi, 2006)
• Biological risk influenced by social environment, [criminal]
parents, prenatal risks.
DETERMINANTS OF AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOR
Environmental Influences
• Physical punishment likely to lead to aggressive behavior when
parent-child relationship lacks warmth (Caspi & Moffitt, 2006) or when
parents are abusive (Lansford et al., 2002).
• Lack of parental monitoring (Patterson, 2004).
• Television viewing, video games – desensitized to violence, view
violence as acceptable resolution (Comstock & Scharrer, 2006).
• Delinquent peers, association with gangs, high-crime neighborhood
– combined with family environment (Thornberry et al, 2003).
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