Course
Year
: S0705 – Soil Mechanic
: 2008
TOPIC 1
INTRODUCTION TO SOIL MECHANIC
CONTENT
•
•
•
•
•
INTRODUCTION (SESSION 1 : F2F)
SOIL CHARACTERICTIC (SESSION 1 : F2F)
SOIL CLASSIFICATION (SESSION 2 : F2F)
SOIL COMPACTION (SESSION 3-4 : F2F)
SOIL INVESTIGATIONS (SESSION 5-6 : OFC)
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SESSION 1
INTRODUCTION
SOIL CHARATERICTIC
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DEFINITION OF SOIL
Soil is a natural body comprised of solids (minerals and
organic matter), liquid, and gases that occurs on the land
surface, occupies space, and is characterized by one or both
of the following: horizons, or layers, that are distinguishable
from the initial material as a result of additions, losses,
transfers, and transformations of energy and matter or the
ability to support rooted plants in a natural environment.
Soil is formed over a long period of time.
The formation of soil happens over a very long period of time.
It can take 1000 years or more. Soil is formed from the
weathering of rocks and minerals. The surface rocks break
down into smaller pieces through a process of weathering
and is then mixed with moss and organic matter.
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SOIL MECHANIC/GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
• Geotechnical engineering is the branch of civil engineering
concerned with the engineering behavior of earth materials.
Geotechnical engineering includes investigating existing subsurface
conditions and materials; assessing risks posed by site conditions;
designing earthworks and structure foundations; and monitoring site
conditions, earthwork and foundation construction.
• A typical geotechnical engineering project begins with a site
investigation of soil, rock, fault distribution and bedrock properties on
and below an area of interest to determine their engineering properties
including how they will interact with, on or in a proposed construction.
Site investigations are needed to gain an understanding of the area in
or on which the engineering will take place. Investigations can include
the assessment of the risk to humans, property and the environment
from natural hazards such as earthquakes, landslides, sinkholes, soil
liquefaction, debris flows and rock falls.
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SOIL FORMATION
Weathering is the process of the breaking down rocks. There are two different types
of weathering. Physical weathering and chemical weathering. In physical weathering
it breaks down the rocks, but what it's made of stays the same. In chemical
weathering it still breaks down the rocks, but it may change what it's made of. For
instance, a hard material may change to a soft material after chemical weathering.
STAGE 1
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STAGE 2
STAGE 3
STAGE 4
SOIL PROFILE
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SOIL PROFILE
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SOIL TYPES
SOIL TYPES
– RESIDUAL SOIL
– SEDIMENT SOIL
• ALLUVIUM SOIL
• LACUSTRINE SOIL
• MARINE SOIL
– PARTICULAR SOIL
• EXPANSIVE SOIL
• ORGANIC SOIL
• COLLAPSIBLE SOIL
• QUICK CLAY
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BASIC CHARACTERISTIC
• PARTICLE BONDING
THE PARTICLE BONDING IS VERY WEAK SO RELATIVELY
EASY TO GOING TO CHANGE AND HAVE NON-LINEAR
BEHAVIOUR AND CHARACTERISTIC
• SHAPE, SIZE AND STRUCTURE OF SOIL
PARTICLE
• Cohesive Soil
• Non-cohesive Soil
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LOOSE SAND
DENSE SAND
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• PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL
– BASIC DEFINITION AND PHASE RELATIONS
Mass
Air
Water
Soil
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• VOID RATIO (Angka Pori) ; e : The ratio of void volume (Vv) to soil
volume (Vs)
e
Vv
Vs
0<e<
• POROSITY (Porositas) ; n : The ratio of void volume (Vv) to total volume
(V)
n
0n1
Vv
V
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VOID RATIO AND POROSITY
n
e
1 n
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or
e
n
1 e
• WATER CONTENT (kadar air) ;  : The ratio of the amount of water (Ww)
in the soil (Ws) and expressed as a percentage
Ww

x100%
Ws
0% <  < 
• DERAJAT KEJENUHAN (DEGREE OF SATURATION) ; S : The ratio of
water volume air (Vw) to void volume (Vv) and expressed as a percentage
S
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Vw
x100%
Vv
0%  S  100%
• UNIT WEIGHT (Berat Volume) : The ratio of weight to volume
Ww
w 
Vw
Ws
s 
Vs
 
W
V
• SPECIFIC GRAVITY (Berat Jenis) ; GS : The ratio of unit weight of soil to
unit weight of water
GS 
s
w
• RELATIVE DENSITY (Kepadatan Relatif) ; Dr :
Dr 
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emax  eo
x100%
emax  emin
– RELATIONSHIP OF SOIL PARAMETERS
d 
d 

(1   )
Ws
V
 
d 
Ws .
W
d 
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W
V
W  Ws  Ww

Ws
Ws

Ww
d 
Ws

(1   )
SESSION 2
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
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SOIL CLASSIFICATION
• PURPOSE:
To classified the soil into a group according to the
soil behaviour and physical shape
• TYPE OF CLASSIFICATION:
• CLASSIFICATION BY VISUAL
• AASHTO
• UCS
• SOIL TESTS
• ATTERBERG LIMIT
• SIEVE ANALYSIS
• HYDROMETER ANALYSIS
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Atterberg Limit
– Cohesive Soil
– Base on water content
– Consistency Limit : Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit and Shrinkage Limit
Volume
Plasticity Index
PI
Semi
Solid
Solid
SL
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Plastic
PL
Liquid
LL
Water content
LIQUID LIMIT (LL)
• The liquid limit is that moisture content at which a soil
changes from the liquid state to the plastic state. It along
with the plastic limit provides a means of soil classification
as well as being useful in determining other soil properties
• Two main methods to determine the liquid limit :
– Cone Pentrometer Method
– Casagrande Method
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CONE PENETROMETER METHOD
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CONE PENETROMETER METHOD
SAMPLE PREPARATION :
• Any coarse particles present need to be removed, by hand or by wet
sieving (coarse particles are defined as any particles retained on a 425
micron sieve).
• Next a representative sample is required weighing around 200g.
• This sample should be cut into small pieces using a knife or shredder
and any coarse particles removed with tweezers.
• Then the sample is transferred to a flat glass plate, distilled water is
added and the soil and water are mixed thoroughly with two palette
knives until the mass becomes a thick homogenous paste.
• The paste is then transferred to an air tight container for 24 hrs to allow
the water time to penetrate the soil fully.
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CONE PENETROMETER METHOD
TESTING PROCEDURES:
• Push a portion of the sample into the cup with a palette knife taking care not to trap
air, strike off the excess and with the straight edge to get a smooth and level
surface.
• With the penetration cone raised and locked lower the supporting assembly so that
the tip of the cone just touches the surface of the soil in the cup.
• When the cone is in position a slight movement of the cup will mark the surface.
• Lower the stem of the dial gauge so that it comes into contact with the cone shaft
and gives a reading, record the reading to the nearest 0.1mm.
• Release the cone for a period of 5s (plus or minus 1s) if the apparatus is not fitted
with an automatic release and locking device take care not to jar the apparatus
during the procedure. After 5s the cone should have, to some extent, penetrated
the smooth surface of the soil, lock the cone in this new, lower, position and lower
the stem of the dial gauge again so that it just comes into contact with the cone
shaft, record this new reading to the nearest 0.1mm Lift out the cone and clean it
carefully, to avoid scratching, then add a little more wet soil and repeat the test.
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CONE PENETROMETER METHOD
Notes:
• If the difference between the first and second penetration readings is
less than 0.5mm record the average of the two penetrations.
• If the second penetration is more than 0.5mm and less than 1mm
from the first, carry out a third test.
• If the overall range is then not more than 1mm record the average
of the three penetrations. If the overall range is more than 1mm
remove the soil from the cup, remix and repeat until consistent
results are obtained.
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CONE PENETROMETER METHOD
TESTING PROCEDURES (continued):
• Take a moisture content sample of about 10g from the cup around the
area penetrated by the cone.
• Repeat the test at least three more times using the same sample of
soil - to which further increments of distilled water have been added.
Proceeding from the drier state to the wetter. The amount of water
added shall be such that a range of penetration values of
approximately 15-25mm is covered by four or more test runs and is
evenly distributed.
• Each time the soil is removed from the cup for the addition of water
the cup and cone must be thoroughly cleaned, if the soil is to be left
for any length of time it should be covered with a damp cloth to
prevent it drying out.
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CONE PENETROMETER METHOD
Result
• Calculate the moisture content of each test sample,
• plot the relationship between the moisture content and the
corresponding cone penetration recorded on a linear chart, with the
percentage moisture content as ordinates on the linear scale and
the number of bumps on the opposite scale,
• draw a line of best fit between the points.
• From the curve read off the moisture content corresponding to a
cone penetration of 20mm to the first decimal place,
• express this moisture content to the nearest whole number and
report it as the liquid limit.
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CONE PENETROMETER METHOD
Example of
Typical Result
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CASAGRANDE METHOD
• Per definition as water content at 25 blows
METHOD A :
MULTI-POINT
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CASAGRANDE METHOD
METHOD B :
SINGLE-POINT
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CASAGRANDE METHOD
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CASAGRANDE METHOD
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PLASTIC LIMIT (PL)
• Plastic behaviour
• The test is done by rolling up the
soil sample to 3.2mm diameter
• Defined as the water content, in
percent, at which the soil
crumbles, when rolled into
threads of 1/8 in (3.2mm) in
diameter.
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SHRINKAGE LIMIT (SL)
Ü
Ü
Ü
Test Standard : ASTM D 427
Defined as the moisture
content, in percent, at which
the volume of soil mass
ceases to change
WS <<<  easy to have
volume change
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CONSISTENCY RELATIONSHIP
•
Plasticity Index (PI)
PI = LL - PL
•
Liquidity Index (LI)
ω  PL
LI 
LL  PL
•
Consistency Index (CI)
CI 
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LL  
LL  PL
CONSISTENCY RELATIONSHIP
• Activity (A)
PI
A
%clay _ fraction
A < 0.75  non-active clay
0.75 A<1.25  normal clay
A 1.25
 active clay
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Sieve Analysis
• Test Standard
ASTM D422, AASHTO T88
• The testing should be only
carried out once for one
sample
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Curve of Particle Size Distribution
D
CU  60
D10
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2
D30
CC 
D10.D60
Hydrometer Analysis
• Used to extend the distribution curve of particle
shape and to predict the particle size less than
200 sieve
• Principle of work : sedimentation of soil particle in
water
• Assumption : All particle have rounded shape
• Stoke rule is valid :

 s   w D
v
18
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2
BASIC OF CLASSIFICATION
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CLASSIFICATION BY VISUAL
Carried out by direct observation (visual
examination) to the sample and approximate
the type of soil by:
–
–
–
–
–
–
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Colour
Smell
Sense/Feeling
endurance
Swelling
Sedimentation
AASHTO
• The soil classified into 7 major categories (A-1 to A-7)
• Based on:
– The result of Sieve Analysis
– Atterberg Limits
• The soil quality based on Group Index Calculation
Plasticity Index for sub
group A-7-5  LL minus 30.
Plasticity Index for sub
group A-7-6 > LL minus 30
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AASHTO
GROUP INDEX
GI  ( F  35){0.2  0.005 ( LL  40)}  0.01( F  15)( PI  10)
F = The percentage of soil pass sieve no. 200
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Subgrade
Group Index Value
Very good
Soil Class A-1-a (0)
Good
0–1
Medium
2–4
Bad
5–9
Very Bad
10 - 20
AASHTO
GROUP INDEX
Rules:
• If GI < 0, GI = 0
• GI  Integer Number
• No upper limit of GI
• For coarse grained,
– GI = 0 for A-1-a, A-1-b, A-2-4, A-2-5 and A-3
– GI =0,01(F-15)(PI-10) for A-2-6 and A-2-7
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AASHTO
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AASHTO
PROCEDURE
Make examination of soil to determine whether it
is granular or silt clay materials
Determine amount passing No. 200 sieve
Granular Materials
35% or less pass No. 200 sieve
Silt-Clay Materials
36% or more pass No. 200 sieve
Run LL and PL on minus No.
40 sieve material
Less than 25%
pass No. 200 sieve
A-2
Less than 35%
pass No. 200 sieve
Run sieve analysis, also LL
and PL on minus No. 40
sieve material
Run LL and PL on minus No.
40 sieve material
A-1
Less than 50%
pass No. 40 sieve
Less than 15%
pass No. 200 sieve
Less than 30%
pass No. 40 sieve
Less than 50%
pass No. 10 sieve
PI less than 6
A-1-a
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Less than 25%
pass No. 200 sieve
Less than 50%
pass No. 40 sieve
Greater than 50%
pass No. 40 sieve
Less than 10%
pass No. 200 sieve
Silty
PI less than 10
Silt
PI less than 10
Clayey
PI greater than 11
LL less
than 40
LL greater
than 41
LL less
than 40
LL greater
than 41
A-2-4
A-2-5
A-2-6
A-2-7
LL less
than 40
LL greater
than 41
Clay
PI greater than 11
A-7
LL greater
than 41
LL less
than 40
PI equal to or less
than LL minus 30
or
PL equal to or
greater than 30
PI greater than LL
minus 30
or
PL less than 30
A-7-5
A-7-6
Nonplastic
PI less than 6
A-1-b
A-3
A-4
A-5
A-6
AASHTO
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USCS
(UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM)
• Soil classification determined base on the soil parameter i.e.:
– Diameter of soil particle
• Gravel : pass sieve no.3 but retained at sieve no. 4
• Sand : pass sieve no. 4 but retained at sieve no. 200
• Silt and Clay : pass sieve no. 200
– Coefficient of soil uniform
– Atterberg Limits
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USCS
(UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM)
Soil Type
• Notation
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
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G
M
C
O
W
P
L
H
= Gravel
= Inorganic Silt
= inorganic Clay
= Organic Silt or Clay
= Well Graded
= Poorly Graded
= Low Plasticity
= High Plasticity
Prefix
Sub-group
Suffix
Well Graded
W
Gravel
G
Poor Graded
P
Sand
S
Silty
M
Clayey
C
Silt
M
Clay
C
LL < 50%
L
Organic
O
LL > 50%
H
Peat
Pt
USCS
(UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM)
• Steps of determination
– Determine the soil particle by count the percentage of soil
pass sieve no. 200. If the percentage less than 50% so the
soil is classified as coarse grained.
– Determine the percentage of soil pass sieve no. 4 and
retained at sieve no. 200. If the percentage less than a half of
the percentage of coarse material, the soil is classified as
gravelly soil
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THE FLOW CHART OF USCS METHOD
Make visual examination of soil to determine
whether it is HIGHLY ORGANIC, COARSE
GRAINED, or FINE GRAINED, ini borderline
cases determine amount passing No. 200 sieve
HIGHLY ORGANIC SOIL (Pt)
Fibrous texture, color, odor, very high
moisture content, particle of vegetable
matter (sticks, leaves, etc.)
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COARSED GRAINED
50% or less pass No.200 sieve
FINE GRAINED
More than 50% pass No.200 sieve
FLOWCHART OF USCS
METHOD (CONTINUED)
COARSED GRAINED
50% or less pass No.200 sieve
Run sieve analysis
GRAVEL (G)
Greater percentage of coarse
fraction retained on No. 4 sieve
Less than 5%
pass No. 200
sieve *
Examine grain size
curve
Between 5% and 12%
pass No. 200 sieve
Borderline. to have double
symbol appropriate to grading
and plasticity characteristic,
e.g. GW-GM
SAND (S)
Greater percentage of coarse
fraction pass on No. 4 sieve
more than 12%
pass No. 200
sieve
Less than 5%
pass No. 200
sieve *
Run LL and PL on
minus No. 40
sieve fraction
Examine grain size
curve
Between 5% and 12%
pass No. 200 sieve
Borderline. to have double
symbol appropriate to grading
and plasticity characteristic,
e.g. GW-GM
more than 12%
pass No. 200
sieve
Run LL and PL on
minus No. 40
sieve fraction
Well
Graded
Poorly
Graded
Below A line and
hatched zone on
plasticity chart
Limits plot in
hatched zone on
plasticity chart
Above A line and
hatched zone on
plasticity chart
Well
Graded
Poorly
Graded
Below A line and
hatched zone on
plasticity chart
Limits plot in
hatched zone on
plasticity chart
Above A line and
hatched zone on
plasticity chart
GW
GP
GM
GM-GC
GC
SW
SP
SM
SM-SC
SC
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FLOWCHART USCS
METHOD (CONTINUED)
FINE GRAINED
More than 50% pass
No.200 sieve
Run LL and PL on minus No.40
sieve material
L
Liquid Limit
less than 50
Below A line and hatched
zone on plasticity chart
Limits plot in hatched
zone on plasticity
chart
H
Liquid Limit
more than 50
Above A line and hatched
zone on plasticity chart
Color, odor, possibly LL
and PL on oven dry soil
Organic
OL
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Above A line on
plasticity chart
Color, odor, possibly LL
and PL on oven dry soil
Inorganic
ML
Below A line on
plasticity chart
ML-CL
CL
Inorganic
Organic
MH
OH
CH
USCS
(UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM)
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USCS
(UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM)
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COMPARISON OF AASHTO AND USCS
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EXAMPLE
RESULT OF ANALYSIS AND ATTERBERG LIMIT
- GROSS WEIGHT OF SAMPLE = 1000 GRAM
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Sieve Size
Soil 1
Soil 2
Soil 3
No. 4
990 gram
970 gram
1000 gram
No. 10
920 gram
900 gram
1000 gram
No. 40
860 gram
400 gram
1000 gram
No. 100
780 gram
80 gram
990 gram
No. 200
600 gram
50 gram
970 gram
LL
20
-
124
PL
15
-
47
PI
5
NP
77
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Sieve Size
Soil 1
Soil 2
Soil 3
No. 4
99 %
97 %
100 %
No. 10
92 %
90 %
100 %
No. 40
86 %
40 %
100 %
No. 100
78 %
8%
99 %
No. 200
60 %
5%
97 %
LL
20
-
124
PL
15
-
47
PI
5
NP
77
SESSION 3-4
SOIL COMPACTION
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INTRODUCTION
Soil compaction is defined as the method of mechanically
increasing the density of soil. In construction, this is a
significant part of the building process.
If performed
improperly, settlement of the soil could occur and result in
unnecessary maintenance costs or structure failure
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SOIL COMPACTION
• PURPOSE
– Improving the soil quality by:
• Increasing the shear strength
of soil
• Improving the bearing
capacity of soil
– Reduces the settling of soil
– Reduces the soil permeability
– To control the relative volume
change
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TYPES OF COMPACTION
4 types of compaction effort on soil :
–
–
–
–
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Vibration
Impact
Kneading
Pressure
SOIL COMPACTION
• BASIC THEORY
Developed by R.R. Proctor at 1920-an with 4 variables :
–
–
–
–
Compaction efforts (Compaction Energy)
Soil types
Water content
Dry Unit Weight
• LABORATORY COMPACTION TEST
–
–
–
–
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Standard Proctor Test
Modification Proctor Test
Dietert Compaction
Harvard Miniatur Compaction
STANDARD PROCTOR TEST
•
•
The soil is compacted at
cylindrical tube
Specification of test and
equipments
–
–
–
–
–
–
•
•
•
Hammer weight = 2,5 kg (5,5 lb)
Falling height
= 1 ft
Amount of layers
=3
No. of blows/layer
= 25
Compaction effort = 595 kJ/m3
Soil type = pass sieve no. 4
The test is carried out several time
with different water content
After compacted, the weight,
moisture content and unit weight
of samples are measured
Test Standard :
– AASHTO T 99
– ASTM D698
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MODIFIED PROCTOR TEST
•
•
The soil is compacted at
cylindrical tube
Specification of test and
equipments
–
–
–
–
–
–
•
•
•
Hammer weight = 4.5 kg (10 lb)
Falling height
= 1.5 ft
Amount of layers
=5
No. of blows/layer
= 25, 56
Compaction effort = 2693 kJ/m3
Soil type = pass sieve no. 4
The test is carried out several time
with different water content
After compacted, the weight,
moisture content and unit weight
of samples are measured
Test Standard :
– AASHTO T 180
– ASTM D1557
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TEST RESULT
 w .GS.S
d 
S  GS.
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DIETERT COMPACTION
•
•
•
•
•
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Principle of work:
Impact Compaction is acted like
Proctor Test
The size of soil particle:
Pass sieve 2 mm
The falling height is more constant
 reproducible
To get the approximation of
compaction characteristic of less
soil sample
Purpose for other soil testing such
as unconfined compression test
HARVARD MINIATUR COMPACTION
•
•
•
•
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Principle of work :
Alat pemadat sheepsfoot roller 
aksi kneading pada tanah
Spring Load Tamper :
Spring 40 lb
The size of soil particle:
Lolos saringan 2 mm
Pemadatan dalam 3 lapis dengan
25 tekanan per lapis
 Standar Proctor Test
FIELD COMPACTION
• Type of Compaction Equipment :
– Smooth Wheel Roller :
compaction equipment which
supplies 100% coverage under
the wheel, with ground contact
pressures up to 400 kPa and
may be used on all soil types
except rocky soils. Mostly use for
proofrolling subgrades and
compacting asphalt pavements.
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FIELD COMPACTION
• Type of Compaction Equipment :
– Rubber Tire Roller :
A heavily loaded wagon with several
rows of three to six closely spaced
tires with tire pressure may be up to
about 700 kPa and has about 80%
coverage (80% of the total area is
covered by tires).
This equipment may be used for
both granular and cohesive highway
fills.
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FIELD COMPACTION
• Type of Compaction Equipment :
– Sheepsfoot Roller :
This roller has many round or
rectangular shaped protrusions or
“feet” attached to a steel drum.
The area of these protusions
ranges from 30 to 80 cm2.
Area coverage is about 8 – 12%
with very high contact pressures
ranging from 1400 to 7000 kPa
depending on the drum size and
whether the drum is filled with
water.
The sheepsfoot roller is best suited
for cohesive soils.
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FIELD COMPACTION
• Type of Compaction Equipment :
– Tamping Foot Roller :
This roller similarly to sheepsfoot
roller, which has approximately
40% coverage and generate high
contact pressures from 1400 to
8400 kPa. Tamping foot rollers are
best for compacting fine-grained
soils.
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FIELD COMPACTION
• Type of Compaction Equipment :
– Grid Roller :
This roller has about 50%
coverage and pressures from 1400
to 6200 kPa, ideally suited for
compacting rocky soils, gravels
and sand. With high towing speed,
the material is vibrated, crushed,
and impacted.
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FIELD COMPACTION
• Type of Compaction Equipment :
– Baby Roller :
Small type of smooth wheel roller yang,
which has pressure ranges from 10 to 30
kPa. The performance base on static weight
and vibration effect.
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FIELD COMPACTION
• Type of Compaction Equipment:
– Vibrating Plate :
Compaction equipment, which has
plate shape. In Indonesia this
equipment sometimes called as
“stamper”. Usually used for narrow
area and high risk when use large
compaction equipment like smooth
wheel roller etc.
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FIELD COMPACTION
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FIELD COMPACTION
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FIELD COMPACTION
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FIELD COMPACTION
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CHARACTERISTIC AND APPLICATION
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CONDITIONER FACTORS
• Characteristic of compaction equipment
– Weight and size
– Operation frequency and frequency range
• Soil Characteristic
–
–
–
–
Initial density
Soil type
Size and shape of soil particle
Moisture Content
• Compaction Procedure
–
–
–
–
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No. of passes of the roller
Layer thickness
Frequency of operation of vibrator
Towing speed
FIELD COMPACTION CONTROL
• Excavate a hole with certain diameter
and depth. Determine the mass of
excavated material.
• Determine the moisture content
• Measure the volume of excavated
material by:
– Ottawa Sand  Sand cone
– The balloon method
– Pouring water or oil
• Compute the total density,  and d,field
• Compare d, field with d,max and
calculate the relative compaction
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SPECIFICATION OF COMPACTION
• End Product Specification
 d ( field )
RC 
x100%
 d (max)
• Method of Specification
– Minimum soil sample 100 kg
– Need special experience to find out the optimum moisture content
in order to get optimum compaction performance
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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DENSITY AND CBR
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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DENSITY AND CBR
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Session 5 – 6
SOIL INVESTIGATION
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SOIL INVESTIGATION AND LABORATORY TESTS
• SOIL INVESTIGATION
• LABORATORY TESTINGS
• EMPIRICAL CORRELATIONS
– CPT AND N-SPT VALUE
– BETWEEN SOIL PARAMETER
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SOIL INVESTIGATION
• PURPOSE
– To describe the soil condition and its stratification.
– To get the soil sample for laboratory testing
• undisturbed sample
• disturbed sample
– To find out the ground water level
– To get the soil properties directly
– In-situ Test
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SOIL INVESTIGATION
• STAGES
– Site Inspection
– Initial Investigation
• Cone Penetration Test (Sondir)
– Advance Investigation (detail)
•
•
•
•
Boring and sampling
Standard Penetration Test
Pressuremeter
Dilatometer
– Additional Investigation
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SOIL INVESTIGATION
• DEPTH OF SOIL INVESTIGATION
–
–
–
–
–
Shallow Foundation : 3 x Foundation width (min. 9m)
Raft Foundation : 2 x Foundation width
Pile Foundation : 2 x Pile width (measured from pile tip)
Pile + Raft Foundation : 2 x building width
Retaining Earth Structure : 0.7 x cutting width or 1 x cutting height (take
the biggest)
– Soil Embankment : 2 x embankment width
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SOIL INVESTIGATION
• NO. OF SOIL INVESTIGATION
– Initial Investigation :
• Normal Soil : every 100 to 200 m
• Soft Soil : every 50 to 100 m
– Detail Investigation :
• Square structure : every 15 to 25 m
• Strip structure : every 25 to 50 m
– At the important side of the structure, the number of soil investigation can
be increased
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BORING INVESTIGATION
•
•
•
•
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AUGER BORING
WASH BORING
CORE DRILLING
TEST PIT
BORING INVESTIGATION
• AUGER BORING (PENGEBORAN MANUAL)
–
–
–
–
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Carried out by pushing and rotating the auger into soil
Limited application, only suitable for shallow foundation
Not suitable for boring under ground water table
Simple, easy to operate and minimum disturbance to soil
BORING INVESTIGATION
• WASH BORING (PENGEBORAN BILAS )
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
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Use rotary bore machine
Soil dig and washed by water circulation
Can not used for soil identification
Less suitable for rock boring
Suitable for all type of soil
Very suitable for soft soil
Disturbance to soil structure is minimum
BORING INVESTIGATION
• CORE DRILLING (PENGEBORAN INTI)
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
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Use rotary bore machine
Single tube without water circulation
Double or triple tube with water circulation
Can use for rock
Can identify soil directly
Not suitable for boring of soft soil
Can make a disturbance soil structure
BORING INVESTIGATION
• TEST PIT
–
–
–
–
–
–
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Carried by excavated soil manually
For shallow depth
Difficult to apply to soil with high water level
Very simple and relative cheap
Identification can be done directly by visual.
Large number of soil sample
SAMPLING METHOD
• UNDISTURBED SOIL SAMPLING (CONTOH TANAH
TAK TERGANGGU)
– Sampling Technique
• Sensitive and soft to very soft clay or silt  thin wall tube +
piston
• Soft to medium stiff clay or silt  shelby thin wall tube sampler
• Hard to very hard clay or silt  thick wall tube sampler or
Denison or Pitcher samplers
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THIN WALL and PISTON SAMPLER
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THICK WALL and DENISON SAMPLER
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SOIL SAMPLER TUBE (ASTM D1587)
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SAMPLING METHOD
• UNDISTURBED SOIL SAMPLE (CONTOH TANAH TAK
TERGANGGU )
– Storage Technique/Sample treatment
•
•
•
•
•
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The tube shall be covered by paraffin candle
Storage at cool place and at vertical position
Shall be labeled to facilitate soil identification
The tube shall be folded by foam during transportation
The laboratory tests shall be carried out as soon as possible
SAMPLING METHOD
• DISTURBED SOIL SAMPLE (CONTOH TANAH TERGANGGU )
– Sampling Technique and Sample Treatment
• Can get from core drilling or SPT tube
• Shall be folded by plastic and storage at cool place
• Shall be labeled to facilitate soil identification
– Usually use for fill material
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INSITU TEST (UJI LAPANGAN)
•
BASIC AND SIMPLE INSITU TEST
– Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
– Cone Penetration Test (CPT)
•
INSITU TEST for DIRECT MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL
–
–
–
–
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Field vane shear test  Soil Strength
Pressuremeter Test/Lateral Load Test (LLT)  Soil Deformation
Flat Dilatometer Test  Soil Deformation
Plate Bearing Test  Strength and Deformation of Soil
STANDARD PENETRATION TEST (SPT)
• PRINCIPLE OF WORK
Carried out by punching the standard tube to bore hole using free fall 63.5 kg
hammer from 760mm height. The number of blows required for spoon
penetration of three 150mm. The number of blow counted at the last of 300mm
penetration.
• RULES
– Dimension of SPT tube according to ASTM D1586
– The hammer type is conventional or automatic
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STANDARD PENETRATION TEST (SPT)
• ADVANTAGES
– Could be used to identify soil types visually
– Could be used to get qualitative soil properties by empirical
correlation
• LIMITATION
– The soil strength profile can not be measured continuously
– The high accuracy is needed during investigation in case of weight
and falling height of hammer
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SPT HAMMER
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DIMENSION OF SPT TUBE
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EXAMPLE OF BORING LOG AND SPT
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SPT EXECUTION
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CONE PENETRATION TEST (CPT)
• TYPE OF PENETROMETER AND PRINCIPLE OF WORK
– Mechanical friction-cone penetrometer
by pushing a cone with projection area 10 cm2 and 60o
angle and standard velocity 20 mm per-second.
2 measurement parameters each 20 cm of depth:
•
•
Cone Resistance (qc)
Local Friction (fs)
– Electric friction-cone penetrometer
measure the cone pressure and continuously friction with better
accuracy level
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CONE PENETRATION TEST (CPT)
• ADVANTAGES
– Continuous Soil strength profile
– Give fast description of soil
– Simple
• LIMITATIONS
– Bad accuracy for soil with some stones
– Mechanical friction-cone penetrometer is less sensitive when
applied in very soft clay
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CPT CONE SIZE (ASTM D 3441)
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ELECTRIC FRICTION-CONE PENETROMETER TIP
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EXAMPLE OF CPT GRAPH
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FIELD VANE SHEAR TEST (FVT)
•
•
•
•
Measure undrained shear strength of soil
Suitable for very soft clay to medium stiff clay
Principle of equipment operation : vane pushed and rotated
The vane shear equation :
sf v 
•
T
    D 2 H  
D 


x
x
1






6
 2 
10
3
H
 

 

Correlation between vane shear and shear strength of soil
s u  .s fv
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FIELD VANE SHEAR TEST (FVT)
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PRESSUREMETER TEST (PMT)
• Measure the strength and deformation of soil
• Recommended use for the soil which need elastic settlement prediction
• Equipment mechanism : expanding the rubber cylinder of water by using
air pressure
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Soil Types
Limit Pressure (kN/m2)
EM/pl
Soft clay
50 – 300
10
Firm clay
300 – 800
10
Stiff clay
600 – 2,500
15
Loose silty sand
100 – 500
5
Silt
200 – 1,500
8
Sand and gravel
1,200 – 5,000
7
Till (Tanah liat berbatu)
1,000 – 5,000
8
Old fill
400 – 1,000
12
Recent fill
50 – 300
12
PRESSUREMETER TEST (PMT)
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DILATOMETER TEST (DMT)
• Have similar purpose and
equipment mechanism with
Pressuremeter
• The difference is in the
pressure direction :
– DMT  one direction
– PMT  radial
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DILATOMETER TEST (DMT)
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PLATE LOAD TEST
•
•
•
•
•
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Measure strength and deformation of soil
Use to determine bearing capacity of soil and its settlement especially for
shallow foundation
Work mechanism : push the circle/square plate at the certain depth with
load of 2 – 3x design load until rupture
Loading influence : 1.5 – 2x plate width
Relationship to undrained shear strength:
Su = (qu - t.H)/Nc
qu = rupture load
t = unit weight of soil
H = thickness of soil on the sample surface
Nc = bearing capacity factor
GROUND WATER INVESTIGATION
• Purpose:
– Ground water elevation
– Seepage behaviour
• Method:
– Ground water elevation
• Observation at bore hole
• Observation at observation
well (standpipe)
• Measure using piezometer
– Seepage behaviour
• Seepage test at bore hole
• Pump test at bore hole
• Large scale of pump test
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PIEZOMETER
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PUMPING TEST
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LABORATORY TESTS
•
Soil Index (, , e, GS etc.)
– Measurement of soil volume and mass
– Sieve analysis test
– Atterberg test
•
Shear Strength (c, )
– Triaxial Test (UU, CU, CD)
– Direct Shear
– Unconfined Compression Test
•
Compresibility (Cc, Cv)
Consolidation test
•
Permeability (k)
– Constant Head
– Falling Head
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EMPIRICAL CORRELATION
• N-SPT value
Sandy Soil
Clayey or Silty Soil
N-SPT Value
Relative Density
N-SPT Value
Consistency
0–4
Very loose
0–2
Very soft
4 – 10
Loose
2–4
Soft
10 – 30
Medium
4–8
Medium stiff
30 – 50
Dense
8 – 15
Stiff
> 50
Very dense
15 – 30
Very stiff
> 30
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Hard
EMPIRICAL CORRELATION
• CPT value
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EMPIRICAL CORRELATION
• Between soil properties
– Cc = 0.009 (LL – 10)
– C = qu/2
– C = (19 – 23) CBR (C in kN/m2)
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