ABSTRACT
On the first day we discussed various topics and the final topic that we decided to work on
was WAN NETWORKING. It is because networking is the topic which is responsible for the
birth and formation of big concepts like internet, cloud computing, hadoop technology, world
wide web (www), web designing and many more which are today not only a concept or
process but are totally different field of studies where one can make a booming career and
succeed in the same. There have been many work and investment in the earlier mentioned
fields but certainly the field which responsible for the concepts, there have been very less
studies done on it.
We went through different projects that have been made till now but certainly there have been
very less projects that may have portrayed the actual power of networking using different
available networking devices.
We decided to work on the project created a blue print of the project that contains and
portrays almost all the concepts of networking. In one networking project we have tried to
create almost all the concepts using all possible devices that are efficient and can do multiple
tasks and also it requires less commands and labour to configure them, and also they are cost
effective.
We later extended the project and decided to create several networks using routers and
connect them all together and we did it. Later we decided to connect them all and we did the
same by connecting them all with another router but by using it we observed that many of the
link of many ports, especially the ports of multilayer switches used to create different VLANs
of PCs and IP Phones. We tried to configure and reconfigure the router but we did not get
better result, even when the link of many ports were made up, the packets being transferred
and also pinging the different IP address (IPv4) of the devices on the command prompt of a
device the result used to be ‘the transmission of the packet is failed’.
To rectify the problem we started the study of other internetworking device that can create a
wide area network with complete efficiency and that has a good security concepts, can be
interfaced easily with the routers, easy to handle, better efficiency and also it is robust and
cost effective. On doing so we came across the FRAME RELAY CLOUD. The device is
exactly what we wanted which proved to be one of the best internetworking devices. It
worked for us the way we wanted it to.
1
At the last phase of our project we decide to connect four different servers using one of the
multilayer switches of one of the networks such that all the networks can store and fetch the
data from the servers. Further we removed all the IP addresses (IPv4) of the devices and
configured them in such a way that they all automatically get the IP address (IPv4) from the
server using DHCP technique.
We then reconfigured all the routers used in the network creation and did a dynamic routing
using the protocol RIPv2 that decides because using this method we need not need to provide
or specify any kind of path to router for the transmission of the packets and is also very
efficient.
Later on, using commands we configured some basic and important security in the
internetworking and networking devices which are the multilayer switches and routers as
there is a high tendency for them to be cracked by the crackers or illegal hackers.
The complete project work that included configuration of different networking and
internetworking devices and other hardware that play an integral part in the communication
and sharing of data, also the simulation of the packet being shared was done on one of the
best network solution software being developed by CISCO is CISCO PACKET TRACER.
We would like to convey that the basic need behind taking on the networking as the project is
to show the community of engineers especially the engineers of electronics and
communications is that networking is also a part of their field because the most important and
known internetworking device router is a device which is based on embedded system
technology and also to show how much the field of networking technology is important.
2
INTRODUCTION
When we connect two or more than two devices (pc) via cable or wifi device for the purpose
of communication and to share files or resources then it is networking.
A Network is a series of points or nodes interconnected by communication paths. The nodes
& points may be device dedicated to single function such as computer used for client
application or router used for connecting networks. The whole purpose of any network is to
enable two end points, networks, server, and router & so on to communicate with each other
& transfer data.
A network is a collection of computers and other hardware components interconnected by
communication channels that allow sharing of resources and information. Where at least one
process in one device is able to send/receive data to/from at least one process residing in a
remote device, then the two devices are said to be in a network. Simply, more than one
computer interconnected through a communication medium for information interchange is
called a computer network.
Networks may be classified according to a wide variety of characteristics, such as the medium
used to transport the data, communications protocol used, scale, topology, and organizational
scope.
Communications protocols define the rules and data formats for exchanging information in a
computer network, and provide the basis for network programming. Well-known
communications protocols include Ethernet, hardware and link layer. Standard that is
ubiquitous in local area networks, and the Internet protocol suite, which defines a set of
protocols for internetworking, i.e. for data communication between multiple networks, as well
as host-to-host data transfer, and application-specific data transmission formats.
Networking
is
sometimes
considered
a
sub-discipline
of
electrical
engineering,
telecommunications, computer science, information technology or computer engineering,
since it relies upon the theoretical and practical application of these disciplines.
3
Internet protocol address or IP address uniquely identifies every network or host on the
internet. IP address is a 32 bit binary number usually represented as 4 decimal values, each
representing 8 bits. Since each of the 8 positions can have two different states (0 or 1),the total
no of combination per octet is 28 or 256 ( each octet contain value between 0 to 255). IP
address is of 2 types, Network ID and Host ID. Network ID is the ID that identifies the
network to which the computer belongs and host ID is the ID which identifies host in the
network. IP address (IPv4) is a 32 bit identifier which represents the address or logical
address of host in our network. It is in the form of decimal. It is divided into four parts. Each
part is of 8 bit.
Class A : 0 to 126 (0.0.0.0 – 126.255.255.255)
127.0.0.0 to
127.255.255.255
Loop back
address
Class B: 128 to 191 (128.0.0.0 – 191.255.255.255)
Class C: 192 to 223 (192.0.0.0 – 223.255.255.255)
Class D: 224 – 239
Used for multicast
(224.0.0.0 – 239.255.255.255)
And
Class E: 240 – 255
Research purpose
(240.0.0.0 – 255.255.255.255)
A subnet mask is a bitmask that encodes the prefix length in quad-dotted notation: 32 bits,
starting with a number of 1 bits equal to the prefix length, ending with 0 bits, and encoded in
four-part dotted-decimal format. A subnet mask encodes the same information as a prefix
length, but predates the advent of CIDR. However, in CIDR notation, the prefix bits are
always contiguous, whereas subnet masks may specify non-contiguous bits. However, this has
no practical advantage for increasing efficiency.
4
A mask used to determine what subnet an IP address belongs to. An IP address has two
components, the network address and the host address. For example, consider the IP address
150.215.017.009. Assuming this is part of a Class B network, the first two numbers (150.215)
represent the Class B network address, and the second two numbers (017.009) identify a
particular host on this network.
Subnetting enables the network administrator to further divide the host part of the address into
two or more subnets. In this case, a part of the host address is reserved to identify the
particular subnet. This is easier to see if we show the IP address in binary format. The full
address is:
10010110.11010111.00010001.00001001
The Class B network part is:
10010110.11010111
and the host address is
00010001.00001001
If this network is divided into 14 subnets, however, then the first 4 bits of the host address
(0001) are reserved for identifying the subnet.
The subnet mask is the network address plus the bits reserved for identifying the subnetwork.
(By convention, the bits for the network address are all set to 1, though it would also work if
the bits were set exactly as in the network address.) In this case, therefore, the subnet mask
would be 11111111.11111111.11110000.00000000. It's called a mask because it can be used
to identify the subnet to which an IP address belongs by performing a bitwise AND operation
on the mask and the IP address. The result is the subnetwork address:
Subnet Mask
255.255.240.000
11111111.11111111.11110000.00000000
IP Address
150.215.017.009
10010110.11010111.00010001.00001001
Subnet Address
150.215.016.000
10010110.11010111.00010000.00000000
The subnet address, therefore, is 150.215.016.000.
5
Moreover it is a 32 bit identifier that defines network ID and host ID.
N
H H H
A : 255 . 0 . 0 . 0
N
N H H
N- network
B: 255 . 255 . 0 . 0
N
N
N
H- host
H
C: 255 . 255 . 255 . 0
IP: 192.168.5.50
SM: 255.255.255.0
192.168.1.0
NID
192.168.1.1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 192.168.1.255
BID
Figure 1: Sub netting flow chart
CIDR: It is a method for allocating IP addresses and routing Internet Protocol packets. The
Internet Engineering Task Force introduced CIDR in 1993 to replace the previous addressing
architecture of classful network design in the Internet. Their goal was to slow the growth of
routing tables on routers across the Internet, and to help slow the rapid exhaustion of IPv4
addresses.
6
IP addresses are described as consisting of two groups of bits in the address: the more
significant part is the network address, which identifies a whole network or subnet, and the
less significant portion is the host identifier, which specifies a particular interface of a host on
that network. This division is used as the basis of traffic routing between IP networks and for
address allocation policies. Classful network design for IPv4 sized the network address as one
or more 8-bit groups, resulting in the blocks of Class A, B, or C addresses. Classless InterDomain Routing allocates address space to Internet service providers and end users on any
address bit boundary, instead of on 8-bit segments. In IPv6, however, the interface identifier
has a fixed size of 64 bits by convention, and smaller subnets are never allocated to end users.
CIDR notation is a syntax of specifying IP addresses and their associated routing prefix. It
appends to the address a slash character and the decimal number of leading bits of the routing
prefix, e.g., 192.0.2.0/24 for IPv4, and 2001:db8::/32 for IPv6.
VLSM: It is a means of allocating IP addressing resources to subnets according to their
individual need rather than some general network-wide rule. Subnet masks are used by hosts
to determine network gateways and broadcast addresses. The Internet's explosive growth
eventually required the more efficient use of the IP address space available. Variable Length
Subnet Masking is a technique used to allow more efficient assignment of IP addresses.
Originally Internet addresses were carved up into small, medium and large size blocks of
contiguous addresses based on the values of the first four bits in the first octet of the IP
address. These were often referred to as class full addresses. By carving class full address
blocks into smaller classless blocks, you waste fewer addresses. The process of carving out
smaller blocks from the larger blocks was called sub netting.
Figure 2: CIDR Table
Subnet Mask
CIDR value
Total IP's
Binary Values
255.255.255.255
/32
1
11111111.11111111.11111111.11111111
255.255.255.254
/31
2
11111111.11111111.11111111.11111110
255.255.255.252
/30
4
11111111.11111111.11111111.11111100
255.255.255.248
/29
8
11111111.11111111.11111111.11111000
255.255.255.240
/28
16
11111111.11111111.11111111.11110000
255.255.255.224
/27
32
11111111.11111111.11111111.11100000
7
Subnet Mask
CIDR value
Total IP's
Binary Values
255.255.255.192
/26
64
11111111.11111111.11111111.11000000
255.255.255.128
/25
128
11111111.11111111.11111111.10000000
255.255.255.0
/24
256
11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
255.255.254.0
/23
512
11111111.11111111.11111110.00000000
255.255.252.0
/22
1024
11111111.11111111.11111100.00000000
255.255.248.0
/21
2048
11111111.11111111.11111000.00000000
255.255.240.0
/20
4096
11111111.11111111.11110000.00000000
255.255.224.0
/19
8192
11111111.11111111.11100000.00000000
255.255.192.0
/18
16,384
11111111.11111111.11000000.00000000
255.255.128.0
/17
32,768
11111111.11111111.10000000.00000000
255.255.0.0
/16
65,536
11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000
255.254.0.0
/15
131,072
11111111.11111110.00000000.00000000
255.252.0.0
/14
262,144
11111111.11111100.00000000.00000000
255.248.0.0
/13
524,288
11111111.11111000.00000000.00000000
255.240.0.0
/12
1,048,576
11111111.11110000.00000000.00000000
255.224.0.0
/11
2,097,152
11111111.11100000.00000000.00000000
255.192.0.0
/10
4,194,304
11111111.11000000.00000000.00000000
255.128.0.0
/9
8,388,608
11111111.10000000.00000000.00000000
255.0.0.0
/8
16,777,216
11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000
254.0.0.0
/7
33,554,432
11111110.00000000.00000000.00000000
252.0.0.0
/6
67,108,864
11111100.00000000.00000000.00000000
248.0.0.0
/5
134,217,728
11111000.00000000.00000000.00000000
240.0.0.0
/4
268,435,456
11110000.00000000.00000000.00000000
224.0.0.0
/3
536,870,912
11100000.00000000.00000000.00000000
192.0.0.0
/2
1,073,741,824
11000000.00000000.00000000.00000000
128.0.0.0
/1
2,147,483,648
10000000.00000000.00000000.00000000
0.0.0.0
/0
4,294,967,296
00000000.00000000.00000000.00000000
8
Figure 3: Cable flow chart
A cable is most often two or more wires running side by side and bonded, twisted or braided
together to form a single assembly, but can also refer to a heavy strong rope. In mechanics
cables, otherwise known as wire ropes, are used for lifting, hauling and towing or conveying
force through tension. In electrical engineering cables are used to carry electric currents. An
optical cable contains one or more optical fibers in a protective jacket that supports the fibers.
Electric cables discussed here are mainly meant for installation in buildings and industrial
sites. For power transmission at distances greater than a few kilometers see high-voltage
cable, power cables and HVDC.
Cable is the medium through which information usually moves from one network device to
another. There are several types of cable which are commonly used with LANs. In some
cases, a network will utilize only one type of cable, other networks will use a variety of cable
types. The type of cable chosen for a network is related to the network's topology, protocol,
and size. Understanding the characteristics of different types of cable and how they relate to
other aspects of a network is necessary for the development of a successful network.
Twisted pair cabling comes in two varieties: shielded and unshielded. Unshielded twisted pair
(UTP) is the most popular and is generally the best option for school networks.
The quality of UTP may vary from telephone-grade wire to extremely high-speed cable. The
cable has four pairs of wires inside the jacket. Each pair is twisted with a different number of
twists per inch to help eliminate interference from adjacent pairs and other electrical devices.
9
The tighter the twisting, the higher the supported transmission rate and the greater the cost per
foot.
The
EIA/TIA
(Electronic
Industry
Association/Telecommunication
Industry
Association) has established standards of UTP and rated six categories of wire (additional
categories are emerging).
The standard connector for unshielded twisted pair cabling is an RJ-45 connector. This is a
plastic connector that looks like a large telephone-style connector (See fig. 2). A slot allows
the RJ-45 to be inserted only one way. RJ stands for Registered Jack, implying that the
connector follows a standard borrowed from the telephone industry. This standard designates
which wire goes with each pin inside the connector.
Although UTP cable is the least expensive cable, it may be susceptible to radio and electrical
frequency interference (it should not be too close to electric motors, fluorescent lights, etc.). If
you must place cable in environments with lots of potential interference, or if you must place
cable in extremely sensitive environments that may be susceptible to the electrical current in
the UTP, shielded twisted pair may be the solution. Shielded cables can also help to extend
the maximum distance of the cables.
Shielded twisted pair cable is available in three different configurations:
1. Each pair of wires is individually shielded with foil.
2. There is a foil or braid shield inside the jacket covering all wires (as a group).
3. There is a shield around each individual pair, as well as around the entire group of
wires (referred to as double shield twisted pair).
Coaxial cabling has a single copper conductor at its center. A plastic layer provides insulation
between the center conductor and a braided metal shield. The metal shield helps to block any
outside interference from fluorescent lights, motors, and other computers.
Although coaxial cabling is difficult to install, it is highly resistant to signal interference. In
addition, it can support greater cable lengths between network devices than twisted pair cable.
The two types of coaxial cabling are thick coaxial and thin coaxial.
Thin coaxial cable is also referred to as thinnet. 10Base2 refers to the specifications for thin
coaxial cable carrying Ethernet signals. The 2 refers to the approximate maximum segment
length being 200 meters. In actual fact the maximum segment length is 185 meters. Thin
coaxial cable has been popular in school networks, especially linear bus networks.
10
Thick coaxial cable is also referred to as thick net. 10Base5 refers to the specifications for
thick coaxial cable carrying Ethernet signals. The 5 refers to the maximum segment length
being 500 meters. Thick coaxial cable has an extra protective plastic cover that helps keep
moisture away from the centre conductor. This makes thick coaxial a great choice when
running longer lengths in a linear bus network. One disadvantage of thick coaxial is that it
does not bend easily and is difficult to install.
Fiber optic cabling consists of a center glass core surrounded by several layers of protective
materials. It transmits light rather than electronic signals eliminating the problem of electrical
interference. This makes it ideal for certain environments that contain a large amount of
electrical interference. It has also made it the standard for connecting networks between
buildings, due to its immunity to the effects of moisture and lighting.
Fiber optic cable has the ability to transmit signals over much longer distances than coaxial
and twisted pair. It also has the capability to carry information at vastly greater speeds. This
capacity broadens communication possibilities to include services such as video conferencing
and interactive services. The cost of fiber optic cabling is comparable to copper cabling;
however, it is more difficult to install and modify. 10BaseF refers to the specifications for
fiber optic cable carrying Ethernet signals.
The center core of fiber cables is made from glass or plastic fibers. A plastic coating then
cushions the fiber center, and Kevlar fibers help to strengthen the cables and prevent
breakage. The outer insulating jacket made of Teflon or PVC.
Straight through:
1.
.GREEN WHITE
.GREEN WHITE
2.
GREEN
GREEN
3.
ORANGE WHITE ORANGE WHITE
4.
BLUE
BLUE
5.
BLUE WHITE
BLUE WHITE
6.
ORANGE
ORANGE
7.
BROWN WHITE
BROWN WHITE
8.
BROWN
BROWN
568 A
568 B
11
Followed during connections of:
1. HUB
SWITCH
2. HUB
PC
3. SWITCH ROUTER
Cross Over:
12 - 36
1
3
2
6
1.
GREEN WHITE
ORANGE WHITE
2.
GREEN
ORANGE
3.
ORANGE WHITE GREEN WHITE
4.
BLUE
BLUE
5.
BLUE WHITE
BLUE WHITE
6.
ORANGE
GREEN
7.
BROWN WHITE
BROWN WHITE
8.
BROWN
BROWN
568 A
568 B
Followed during the connections of:
1.
LAPTOP
LAPTOP
2.
PC
PC
3.
HUB
HUB
4.
SWITCH
SWITCH
5.
PC
ROUTER
Rolled Over:

It is used for interface not for communication.
1.
GREEN WHITE
BROWN
2.
GREEN
BROWN WHITE
12
3.
ORANGE WHITE
ORANGE
4.
BLUE
BLUE WHITE
5.
BLUE WHITE
BLUE
6.
ORANGE
ORANGE WHITE
7.
BROWN WHITE
GREEN
8.
BROWN
GEEN WHITE
Used during the connection of:
1. PC
ROUTER/SWITCH
A wide area network (WAN) is a computer network that covers a large geographic area such
as a city, country, or spans even intercontinental distances, using a communications channel
that combines many types of media such as telephone lines, cables, and air waves. A WAN
often uses transmission facilities provided by common carriers, such as telephone companies.
WAN technologies generally function at the lower three layers of the OSI reference model:
the physical layer, the data link layer, and the network layer.
In computer networking, a single layer-2 network may be partitioned to create multiple
distinct broadcast domains, which are mutually isolated so that packets can only pass between
them via one or more routers; such a domain is referred to as a virtual local area
network, virtual LAN or VLAN.
This is usually achieved on switch or router devices. Simpler devices only support
partitioning on a port level (if at all), so sharing VLANs across devices requires running
dedicated cabling for each VLAN. More sophisticated devices can mark packets
through tagging, so that a single interconnect (trunk) may be used to transport data for
multiple VLANs.
Grouping hosts with a common set of requirements regardless of their physical location by
VLAN can greatly simplify network design. A VLAN has the same attributes as a
physical local area network (LAN), but it allows for end stations to be grouped together more
easily even if they are not on the same network switch. VLAN membership can be configured
through software instead of physically relocating devices or connections. Most enterpriselevel networks today use the concept of virtual LANs. Without VLANs, a switch considers all
interfaces on the switch to be in the same broadcast domain.
13
To physically replicate the functions of a VLAN would require a separate, parallel collection
of network cables and equipment separate from the primary network. However, unlike
physically separate networks, VLANs share bandwidth, so VLAN trunks may
require aggregated links and/or quality of service prioritization.
RIP: Routing information protocol (RIP) is a true distance vector routing protocol. Rip sends
the complete routing table out to all active interfaces every 30 seconds. Rip only uses hop
count to determine the best way to a remote network. But it has a maximum allowable hop
count of 15 by default, meaning that 16 is deemed unreachable. RIP works well in small
networks, but it’s inefficient on large network with slow WAN links or on networks with a
large number of router installed. RIPv1 (RFC 1058) uses only classfull routing, which mean
that all devices in the network must use the same subnet mask. This is because RIP version 1
doesn’t send update with subnet mask information. RIPv2 (RFC 2543) is classless, provide
something called prefix routing and thus send subnet mask information with the route
updates. This is called classless routing. RIP adheres to the following Distance Vector
characteristics:
• RIP sends out periodic routing updates (every 30 seconds)
• RIP sends out the full routing table every periodic update
• RIP uses a form of distance as its metric (in this case, hopcount)
• RIP uses the Bellman-Ford Distance Vector algorithm to determine the best “path” to a
particular destination
Other characteristics of RIP include:
• RIP supports IP and IPX routing.
• RIP utilizes UDP port 520
• RIP routes have an administrative distance of 120.
• RIP has a maximum hopcount of 15 hops.
• RIP can perform load balancing for up to six equal. Cost links by default four routes.
• RIPv1 sends updates as broadcasts to address 255.255.255.255.
14
FORMULATION OF PROBLEM
The problem in networking is the connection of same devices (interfacing) for the purpose of
forming a larger network like WAN, MAN. Moreover also the security in the devices also has
to be updated and configured by us.
The most common and well known device Router in networking is mainly and extensively
used for the interconnection of one or more network. Even when creating a WAN using
different MAN the router is used. In this process we connect all the routers to one router
responsible for creating the WAN which takes a long time especially in the configuration
process also when the connection is done and the link is made up, when the packet is being
transmitted or shared then many of the time it shows that the packet sending has failed.
It is one of the major problems because the users in the network face many problems in the
sharing of data as the desired data are not received at the time we want and also it is
sometimes lost because of which the packets have to be resend and thus the whole process of
sharing and transmission of packets takes lots of time because of the inefficiency of the
internetworking devices to boost the packets and send them to the destination.
The way of solution towards this problem can be done by creating a network using some other
internetworking device that is better than the router for the transmission of the packets and
also is easy to interface with routers and also is easy to configure and has a good security
system.
LITERATURE REVIEW
There have been very less projects being carried on in this particular problem, whatever
project that has been created is done by just improving the clock rate of the DCE and
minimizing the size of network as much as possible or by improving the performance of the
communication devices like IP phone, PC etc. But certainly there have been not much
improvement seen by doing all these sorts of things. Some projects also have tried to improve
the same by configuring the switches but that has also not given a satisfying result as per the
requirement. But certainly CISCO has create a device called FRAME RELAY CLOUD that
can give a concrete solution for the problem which we have used for the problem rectification.
15
APPROACH TO SOLUTION
The solution that we have found is to use the Frame Relay Cloud which is one of the
internetworking devices present other that router so as to connect different networks with
each other and create a WAN does not matter how big the network is.
We have tried to resolve this problem by this method as it has proven to be the robust method
and the less approached method by others. Also, it is easy to configure and easier to maintain
as compared to the router and also the packets can be shared without any discrepancy. Also it
has good level of security which makes it easier for those in the network to share the packets
without any kind hesitation or worry.
Moreover it also makes the fetching and storing of data from the and in the server respectively
easier and faster irrespective of the fact that to which network or VLAN does the
communication device belongs to.
HARDWARE DESCRIPTION
IP PHONE: A VoIP phone or IP Phone uses Voice over IP (Voice over Internet Protocol VoIP) technologies for placing and transmitting telephone calls over an IP network, such as
the Internet, instead of the traditional public switched telephone network (PSTN).
Digital IP-based telephone service uses control protocols such as the Session Initiation
Protocol (SIP), Skinny Client Control Protocol (SCCP) or various other proprietary protocols.
Figure 4: IP Phone
16
PERSONAL COMPUTER: A personal computer (PC) is a general-purpose computer, whose
size, capabilities and original sale price makes it useful for individuals, and is intended to be
operated directly by an end-user with no intervening computer operator.
This contrasted with the batch processing or time-sharing models which allowed larger, more
expensive minicomputer and mainframe systems to be used by many people, usually at the
same time. Large data processing systems require a full-time staff to operate efficiently.
Figure 5-a: Personal Computer
LAPTOP: A laptop computer or simply laptop, also called a notebook computer, is a small
personal computer designed for portability. Usually all of the interface hardware needed to
operate the laptop, such as USB ports (previously parallel and serial ports), graphics card,
sound channel, etc., are built into a single unit. Laptops contain high capacity batteries that
can power the device for extensive periods of time, enhancing portability. Once the battery
charge is depleted, it will have to be recharged through a power outlet. In the interest of
saving power, weight and space, they usually share RAM with the video channel, slowing
their performance compared to an equivalent desktop machine. For this reason, desktop or
gaming computers are generally preferred to laptop PCs for gaming purposes.
Figure 5-b: Laptop
ACCESS POINTS: In computer networking, a wireless Access Point (AP) is a device that
allows wireless devices to connect to a wired network using Wi-Fi, or related standards. The
17
AP usually connects to a router (via a wired network) as a standalone device, but it can also
be an integral component of the router itself. Prior to wireless networks, setting up a computer
network in a business, home or school often required running many cables through walls and
ceilings in order to deliver network access to all of the network-enabled devices in the
building. With the creation of the wireless Access Point (AP), network users are now able to
add devices that access the network with few or no cables. An AP normally connects directly
to a wired Ethernet connection and the AP then provides wireless connections using radio
frequency links for other devices to utilize that wired connection. Most APs support the
connection of multiple wireless devices to one wired connection. Modern APs are built to
support a standard for sending and receiving data using, these radio frequencies. Those
standards and the frequencies they use are defined by the IEEE. Most APs use IEEE
802.11 standards.
Figure 6: Access Point
MULTILAYER SWITCH: A multilayer switch (MLS) is a computer networking device that
switches on OSI layer 2 like an ordinary network switch and provides extra functions on
higher OSI layers. The major difference between the packet switching operation of
a router and that of a Layer 3 switch is the physical implementation. In general-purpose
routers, packet switching takes place using software that runs on a microprocessor, whereas a
Layer 3 switch performs this using dedicated application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC)
hardware. A multilayer switch (MLS) can prioritize packets by the 6 bits in IP DSCP
(differentiated services Code Point). These 6 bits were used in the "old days" for Type of
Service (ToS).
The following 4 mappings are normally available in an MLS:

From OSI layer 2, 3 or 4 to IP DSCP (if IP packet) and/or VLAN IEEE 802.1p.

From VLAN IEEE 802.1p to IP DSCP.
18

From IP DSCP to VLAN IEEE 802.1p.

From VLAN IEEE 802.1p to port queue.
Many MLSs implement QoS differentiated services and/or integrated services in hardware.
Some MLSs are also able to route between VLANs and/or ports like a common router. The
routing is normally as quick as switching (at wire speed). According to Cisco, Layer 3
switches are basically routers that switch based on Layer 3 information, the basic difference
being processing speed and/or the way they do the switching; Layer 3 switches use
ASICs/hardware instead of the CPU/software that a router would.
Figure 7: Multilayer Switch
ROUTER: Routers are physical devices that join multiple wired or wireless networks
together. Technically, a wired or wireless router is a Layer 3 gateway, meaning that the
wired/wireless router connects networks (as gateways do), and that the router operates at the
network layer of the OSI model.
Home networkers often use an Internet Protocol (IP) wired or wireless router, IP being the
most common OSI network layer protocol. An IP router such as a DSL or cable modem
broadband router joins the home's local area network (LAN) to the wide-area network (WAN)
of the Internet.
By maintaining configuration information in a piece of storage called the routing table, wired
or wireless routers also have the ability to filter traffic, either incoming or outgoing, based on
the IP addresses of senders and receivers. Some routers allow the home networker to update
the routing table from a Web browser interface. Broadband routers combine the functions of a
router with those of a network switch and a firewall in a single unit.
Bellman–Ford algorithm computes single-source shortest paths in a weighted digraph. For
graphs with only non-negative edge weights, the faster Dijkstra's algorithm also solves the
19
problem. Thus, Bellman–Ford is used primarily for graphs with negative edge weights. The
algorithm is named after its developers, Richard Bellman and Lester Ford, Jr.
If a graph contains a "negative cycle", i.e., a cycle whose edges sum to a negative value, then
walks of arbitrarily low weight can be constructed by repeatedly following the cycle, so there
may not be a shortest path. Bellman-Ford can detect negative cycles and report their
existence, but it cannot produce a correct answer if a negative cycle is reachable from the
source.
According to Robert Sedgewick, "Negative weights are not merely a mathematical curiosity;
arise in a natural way when we reduce other problems to shortest-paths problems". Let G be a
graph containing a negative cycle. One NP-Complete variant of the shortest-path problem
asks for the shortest path in G (containing a negative cycle) such that no edge is repeated.
Sedgewick gives a reduction from the Hamiltonian path problem to this variant of the
problem.
Dijkstra's algorithm, conceived by Dutch computer scientist Edsger Dijkstra in 1956 and
published in 1959, is a graph search algorithm that solves the single-source shortest path
problem for a graph with nonnegative edge path costs, producing a shortest path tree. This
algorithm is often used in routing and as a subroutine in other graph algorithms.
For a given source vertex (node) in the graph, the algorithm finds the path with lowest cost
(i.e. the shortest path) between that vertex and every other vertex. It can also be used for
finding costs of shortest paths from a single vertex to a single destination vertex by stopping
the algorithm once the shortest path to the destination vertex has been determined. For
example, if the vertices of the graph represent cities and edge path costs represent driving
distances between pairs of cities connected by a direct road, Dijkstra's algorithm can be used
to find the shortest route between one city and all other cities. As a result, the shortest path
first is widely used in network routing protocols, most notably IS-IS and OSPF (Open
Shortest Path First).
Dijkstra's original algorithm does not use a min-priority queue and runs in O(|V|2). The idea
of this algorithm is also given in (Leyzorek et al. 1957). The implementation based on a minpriority queue implemented by a Fibonacci heap and running in O(|E| + |V| log |V|) is due to
(Fredman & Tarjan 1984). This is asymptotically the fastest known single-source shortestpath algorithm for arbitrary directed graphs with unbounded nonnegative weights. (For an
20
overview of earlier shortest path algorithms and later improvements and adaptations, see:
Single-source shortest-paths algorithms for directed graphs with nonnegative weights.)
Figure 8: Router
FRAME RELAY CLOUD: Frame relay is a standardized wide area network technology that
specifies the physical and logical link layers of digital telecommunications channels using
a packet switching methodology. Originally designed for transport across Integrated Services
Digital Network (ISDN) infrastructure, it may be used today in the context of many other
network interfaces.
Network providers commonly implement frame relay for voice (VoFR) and data as
an encapsulation technique, used between local area networks (LANs) over a wide area
network (WAN). Each end-user gets a private line (or leased line) to a frame relay node. The
frame relay network handles the transmission over a frequently changing path transparent to
all end-user extensively used WAN protocols. It is less expensive than leased lines and that is
one reason for its popularity. The extreme simplicity of configuring user equipment in a frame
relay network offers another reason for frame relay's popularity.
With the advent of Ethernet over fiber optics, MPLS, VPN and dedicated broadband services
such as cable modem and DSL, the end may loom for the frame relay protocol and
encapsulation. However many rural areas remain lacking DSL and cable modem services. In
such cases, the least expensive type of non-dial-up connection remains a 64-kbit/s frame relay
line. Thus a retail chain, for instance, may use frame relay for connecting rural stores into
their corporate WAN.
a) It is a standard for packet switching WAN communication over high quality digital
lines.
b) Frame relay networks can provide data transfer upto 1.54 mbps.
c) It can be implemented over a variety of connection lines (56k, T-1, T-2).
21
d) It operates at the physical and data link layers of OSI model.
e) When we sign up for frame relay service we are assigned a level of service called a
committed information rate (CIR).
>> [NOTE: The CIR is the maximum guaranteed data transmission rate we will
receive on frame relay network]
CONCEPTS:1. Routers connect to frame relay switch either directly or through a CSU/DSU.
2. Frame relay networks stimulate an ‘always on’ connection with PVCs
(permanent virtual circuits).
3. Sending routers send data immediately without establishing a session.
4. Frame relay switches perform error checking but not correction.
5. Corrupted packets are simply dropped without notification.
6. Packets travel through the frame relay cloud without acknowledgements.
7. Congestion is the most common cause of packet loss on a frame relay network.
8. Frame relay switches send backward explicit congestions notification (BECN)
messages to slow data transfer rate.
FRAME RELAY PROTOCOL:

a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
i. Data link connection identifiers (DLCIs)
ii. Local management interface (LMI)
DLCIs:
It identifies each virtual circuit.
It ranges between 16 and 1007.
The DLCI represents the connection between two frame relay devices.
The frame relay service provider assigns the DLCI when the virtual circuit is set up.
Each DLCI is unique for the local network, bu not for the entire WAN.
 LMI:
a) It is a set of management protocol extensions that automates many frame relay
management task.
b) It is responsible for managing the connection an d reporting connection status.
c) It maintains the link between the router and the switch.
d) It gathers status information about other routers and connections on the network.
e) Cisco routers support 3 LMI types: Cisco, ANSI and Q933a
FRAME REALY CONNECTIONS AND CIRCUITS:
I.
II.
Point-to-point: This link stimulates a direct connection with destination device.
Multipoint: A multipoint link configures each circuit to communicate with more than
one destination devices.
A CSU/DSU (channel service unit/data service unit) is a digital interface device used to
connect a data terminal equipment device or DTE, such as a router, to a digital circuit(eg.a T1
or T3 line).
22
DUAL DHCP-DNS SERVER: DHCP Server allots the IP addresses to computers, while DNS
server resolves them.
We need DHCP Server if you do not want to manually maintain IP Addresses or you have
less IP Addresses than number of machines you have, as dynamic DHCP Server will recycle
IP Addresses on machines.
DNS Server is needed for resolving hostnames to their IP addresses. Normally your ISP will
provide you with DNS Service. You may have your own DNS Server, which will resolve
hostnames by forwarding them to ISP's DNS Server and cache the addresses also.
If we have home/small office network with Unix/Linux machines, these machines will not be
resolved from each other, as Unix/Linux machines do not support NBNS protocol and we
need our own DNS Server. But how about resolving our local machines? Your ISP's DNS
Server will not have this list and our own DNS Server won’t have them either. Most DNS
Servers cannot do this.(unless you configure dynamic updates, or use static IP addresses and
manually enter them).
This server resolves dhcp allotted local machines automatically in addition to external hosts,
with the added advantage being both dhcp and dns server are always in sync. Also there is no
need to create and maintain cumbersome zone files. Dual DHCP DNS Server is an Open
Source Freeware. In addition, this server is designed for Load Sharing Replicated Operation
DNS Features include Forward and Reverse Lookup, Zone Transfer, Primary/Secondary
Mode of Operation, MX Records, Wildcard Records, Conditional and Default forwarding.
DHCP Fearures support Static and Dynamic 125 DHCP Ranges, Range Filters, Relay Agents
and BOOT, Options can be specified for DHCP Ranges, Global or for Static Hosts.
Either DHCP or DNS Service can be used. If both services are used, DHCP allotted hosts are
automatically added in DNS zones.
23
Figure 10: Dual DHCP-DNS Server
TFTP SERVER: A Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) server is based on a simple Fire
Transfer Protocol (FTP) that was first defined in 1980. TFTP books routers and other
computers that do not have storage devices. It also transfers small files between two or more
computer network hosts such as a transfer initiated on a remote X Window System terminal.
TFTP servers are also based on the traditional EFTP protocol that was part of the PUP
protocol tool suite and is normally one of the first protocols used on a new host type. TFTP
servers use UDP vice TCP datagram packets for network communications.
TFTP servers use UDP port 69 for their transport protocol, which helps to avoid conflicts with
the FTP protocol that uses TCP port 21. The service is incapable of authentication on its own,
encryption, and listing directory contents. The TFTP protocol’s primary purpose is to read or
write files to a remote server and support the octet, netascii, and mail transfer modes, although
mail transfer modes are rarely used in today’s network environment. The original TFTP
protocol definition had a limit of 32 MB for file transfers. This was changed in 1988 to permit
a maximum file size of 4 GB, which is rarely used. Due to the lack of inherent security within
the TFTP protocol, TFTP servers are rarely used over the open Internet, and are instead used
on local or private networks.
TFTP starts when an initiating host sends a read or write request data packet to the TFTP host
over port 69 that contains a transfer mode and file name. The server then sends an
acknowledgment packet and then a data packet to the RRQ. The packet is sent from a freshly
allocated port that is then used for the remainder of the session. The source host then sends
numbered data packets that all contain full blocks of 512 bytes to the destination. The
destination host then replies with acknowledgment packets for all of the data packets that
were sent. The final data packet will contain less than the full 512 bytes, signaling that it is the
end of the transmission. If the file’s size happens to be equal to a multiple of 512, the final
data packet will be sent with 0 bytes. If an acknowledgment is not received for each data
packet transmitted, then the information will be retransmitted.
24
Figure 11-a: TFTP Server
DATABASE SERVER:
A database server is a computer program that provides database services to other computer
programs or computers, as defined by the client–server model. The term may also refer to a
computer dedicated to running such a program. Database management systems frequently
provide database server functionality, and some DBMSs (e.g., MySQL) rely exclusively on
the client–server model for database access.
Such a server is accessed either through a "front end" running on the user’s computer which
displays requested data or the "back end" which runs on the server and handles tasks such as
data analysis and storage.
In a master-slave model, database master servers are central and primary locations of data
while database slave servers are synchronized backups of the master acting asproxies.
Most of the Database servers works with the base of Query language. Each Database
understands its query language and converts it to Server readable form and executes it to
retrieve the results.
Some examples of proprietary database servers are Oracle, DB2, Informix, and Microsoft
SQL Server. Examples of GNU General Public Licence database servers
are Ingres andMySQL. Every server uses its own query logic and structure. The SQL query
language is more or less the same in all relational database servers. DB-Engines lists over 200
DBMSs in its ranking.
Figure 11-b: DATABASE Server
25
FILE SERVER: In computing, a file server is a computer attached to a network that has the
primary purpose of providing a location for shared disk access, i.e. shared storage of
computer files (such as documents, sound files, photographs, movies, images, databases, etc.)
that can be accessed by the workstations that are attached to the same computer network. The
term server highlights the role of the machine in the client–server scheme, where
the clients are the workstations using the storage. A file server is not intended to perform
computational tasks, and does not run programs on behalf of its clients. It is designed
primarily to enable the storage and retrieval of data while the computation is carried out by
the workstations.
File servers are commonly found in schools and offices, where users use a LAN to connect
their client computers.
A file server may be dedicated or non-dedicated. A dedicated server is designed specifically
for use as a file server, with workstations attached for reading and writing files and databases.
File servers may also be categorized by the method of access: Internet file servers are
frequently accessed by File Transfer Protocol (FTP) or by HTTP (but are different from web
servers, that often provide dynamic web content in addition to static files). Servers on a LAN
are usually accessed by SMB/CIFS protocol (Windows and Unix-like) or NFS protocol
(Unix-like systems).
Database servers, that provide access to a shared database via a database device driver,
are not regarded as file servers as they may require Record locking.
Figure 12: FILE Server
26
PROJECT REPORT
Figure 13: WAN Network
VLAN Access Port Configuration:
>> [Syntax: Switch(config)#interface fastethernet port
Switch(config-if)#switchport mode access
Switch(config-if)#switchport access vlan vlan_no.]
VLAN trunk Port Configuration:
>> [Syntax: switch(config)#interface fastethernet port
Switch(config-if)#switchport mode trunk]
To create VLAN through data base:
>>switch#vlan database
switch(vlan)#vlan 20 name marketing
switch#show vlan brief
27
To assign port to dedicated VLAN:
>>switch(config)#interface f0/1
switch(config-if)#switchport mode access
switch(config-if)#switchport access vlan 10
switch#show vlan brief
switch(config)#interface f0/2
switch(config-if)#switchport mode access
switch(config-if)#switchport access vlan 20
switch#show vlan brief
To assign port to dedicated vlan through range:
>>switch(config)#interface range f0/5-6
switch(config-if-range)#switchport mode access
switch(config-if-range)#switchport access vlan 20
switch#show vlan brief
Switch to switch configuration:
>> switch(config)#interface fastethernet port
switch(config-if)#switchport mode trunk
RIPv2 configuration:
>> [Syntax: Router(config)#router rip
Router(config-router)#version 2
Router(config-router)#network source NID]
28
Router configurations:
>>To set secret password to router:
Router(config)#enable secret <password>
>>To set service password:
Router(config)#enable password hcl
>> To encrypt service password:
Router(config)#service password-encryption
>>To set the console password:
Router(config)#line console 0
Router(config-line)#password 123
>>To set banner to the router:
Router(config)#banner motd*banner title*
>>To enable fastethernet of router:
Router(config)#interface fastethernet <port>
Router(config)#no shutdown
>>To assign ip address to fastethernet:
Router(config)#interface fastethernet <port>
Router(config)#ip address <ip address> <subnet mask>
>>To enable serial port of the router: (DCE)
Router(config)#interface serial <port>
Router(config)#ip address <ip address> <subnet mask>
29
Router(config-if)#no shutdown
Router(config-if)#clock rate 64000
>>To enable serial port of the router: (DTE)
Router(config)#interface serial <port>
Router(config)#ip address <ip address> <subnet mask>
Router(config-if)#no shutdown
>>Frame relay cloud configuration:
R1>enable
R1#configure terminal
R1(config)#interface serial 0/0/0
R1(config-if)#encapsulation frame-relay
R1(config-if)#no shutdown
R1(config-if)#exit
R1(config-subif)#interface serial 0/0/0.102 point-to-point
R1(config-subif)#ip address 192.168.1.245 255.255.255.252
R1(config-subif)#frame-relay interface-dlci 102
R1(config-subif)#exit
R1(config)#interface serial 0/0/0.103 point-to-point
R1(config-subif)#ip address 192.168.1.249 255.255.255.252
R1(config-subif)#frame-relay interface-dlci 103
R1(config-subif)#exit
R1(config)#interface serial 0/0/0.104 point-to-point
R1(config-subif)#ip address 192.168.1.253 255.255.255.252
R1(config-subif)#frame-relay interface-dlci 104
R1(config-subif)#exit
R1(config)#ip route 192.168.1.64 255.255.255.224 192.168.1.246
R1(config)#ip route 192.168.1.96 255.255.255.224 192.168.1.250
R1(config)#ip route 192.168.1.128 255.255.255.224 192.168.1.254
R1(config)#exit
30
R2>enable
R2#configure terminal
R2(config)#interface serial 0/0/0
R2(config-if)#encapsulation frame-relay
R2(config-if)#no shutdown
R2(config-if)#exit
R2(config)#interface serial 0/0/0.101 point-to-point
R2(config-subif)#ip address 192.168.1.246 255.255.255.252
R2(config-subif)#frame-relay interface-dlci 101
R2(config-subif)#exit
R2(config)#ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 192.168.1.245
R3>enable
R3#configure terminal
R3(config)#interface serial 0/0/0
R3(config-if)#encapsulation frame-relay
R3(config-if)#no shutdown
R3(config-if)#exit
R3(config)#interface serial 0/0/0.101 point-to-point
R3(config-subif)#ip address 192.168.1.250 255.255.255.252
R3(config-subif)#frame-relay interface-dlci 101
R3(config-subif)#exit
R3(config)#ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 192.168.1.249
R4>enable
R4#configure terminal
R4(config)#interface serial 0/0/0
R4(config-if)#encapsulation frame-relay
R4(config-if)#no shutdown
R4(config-if)#exit
R4(config)#interface serial 0/0/0.101 point-to-point
R4(config-subif)#ip address 192.168.1.254 255.255.255.252
R4(config-subif)#frame-relay interface-dlci 101
R4(config-subif)#exit R4(config)#ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 192.168.1.253
31
SOFTWARE
Figure 14: Software Window
Developer(s) >>
Cisco Systems
Stable release >>
6.1.1
Preview release >>
6.1 builds 87
Development status >>
Active
Operating system >>
Linux, Android 4.1+ and Microsoft Windows
Available in >>
English, Russian, German, Portuguese, Spanish and French
License >>
Proprietary
Website >>
www.cisco.com/web/learning/netacad/course_catalog/PacketTracer.html
We have used one of the best software for the Networking technology i.e. Cisco Packet
Tracer. Cisco Packet Tracer is a network simulation program that allows students to
experiment with network behaviour and ask “what if” questions. As an integral part of the
Networking Academy comprehensive learning experience, Packet Tracer provides simulation,
visualization, authoring, assessment, and collaboration capabilities and facilitates the teaching
and learning of complex technology concepts.
The current version of Packet Tracer supports an array of simulated Application Layer
protocols, as well as basic routing with RIP, OSPF, and EIGRP, to the extents required by the
current CCNA curriculum. While Packet Tracer aims to provide a realistic simulation of
32
functional networks, the application itself utilizes only a small number of features found
within the actual hardware running a current Cisco IOS version. Thus, Packet Tracer is
unsuitable for modelling production networks. With the introduction of version 5.3, several
new features were added, including BGP. BGP is not part of the CCNA curriculum, but part
of the CCNP curriculum.
ESTIMATION
The tentative time required for the completion of the project was almost one month. The
tentative cost is zero because it was the complete work on software which is easily available
but yes if it is practically implemented then it will cost around 15-20 lakhs in INR. The skills
required for the project is the good concepts on networking and CISCO packet tracer. The
manpower that the project required was only two.
RESULT
Thus, the objective of minimizing the loss of data or packets during their transmission to the
respective destination and also minimizing the rate of failures in the packet or data
transmission and also have successfully implemented and interfaced the frame relay cloud.
We have successfully implemented the WAN (wide area network) using the frame relay
cloud, made all the communication devices of all the network interact with servers connected
via one network and also created a good security that can keep the network secured. Hence it
has been proved that the WAN can be implemented using Frame Relay cloud of higher
efficiency as compared to the WAN being created by Router configuration.
CONCLUSION
The greatest advantage is that this particular work can also be done in other networking
software but the disadvantage of this project is that it cannot be assured that how much
successfully the model of the network can be implemented and the simulated results can be
achieved.
33
DISCUSSION
The major short coming of the project is the lengthy commands for the configuration of
networking devices and configuration of networks. Second major issue is the security of
different access points through which one can directly connect the device wirelessly and be
the part of the network. The third major problem is the practical implementation of the
simulated work accurately as it has shown in the software.
All the short comings discussed above can only be done by thorough experimentation and
also practical implementation and experimentation of the same.
REFERENCES

ipedia.org/wiki/Router_(computing)

http://dhcp-dns-server.sourceforge.net/

http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/ts3500tl/v1r0/index.jsp?topi
c=%2Fcom.ibm.storage.ts3500.doc%2Fopg_3584_IPv4_IPv6_prefix_
subnet_mask.html 2.

https://www.google.co.in/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&
cd=1&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0CBwQFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.atlantispress.com%2Fphp%2Fdownload_paper.php%3Fid%3D4781&ei=0BgXVL7cIdDi8A
XRp4DYBA&usg=AFQjCNHoothAaAxO_PaE8721Ne6wQxZVhQ

Data Communication, 3rd Edition, Pearson Publication,Foruzan

Data Communication,4th Edition, Oxford University Press,Tanenbaun

CISCO Certified Network Associate,Ceanage Publication,Todd Lamle
34