CIVIL WAR
“THE DIE IS CAST”
Who caused the Civil War?
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Caesar? “ His ambition had soared so high because he was conscious of
his power to become the master of the Empire.’ Gelzer
 Pompey and Caesar?” Pompey for his part was reluctant to let anyone
stand on the same pinnacle as himself. For this reason and because he had
been listening to Caesar’s enemies he had completely severed his friendly
connections with Caesar.” Caesar
 ‘Absolute power has been what he and Pompey sought.’ Cicero
 Senate? “ A precedent has been created in government; in the recent
past, armed force restored the tribunes veto; now armed force is repressing
and overriding it.”Caesar
 “The Roman Senate, which had sole responsibility for foreign policy and
warmaking, became reluctant to finance the large standing army necessary
to police and defend this territory. The result was that control and support of
Rome’s armies gradually fell to its generals… “ Jimenez
 “ The nobility gloried in idleness and at the same time trembled for their
wealth, the use and the increase of which they accounted greater than
eternal life itself.”Aurelius Victor
 A broader view? .”On broader grounds it may be confidently said that the
civil war was not of Caesar's making.....Caesar in 49 like Sulla in 83 was
offered the choice between self defense and political extinction......therefore
the 22 extremist senators who insisted on Caesar's recall were in fact
insisting on Civil War. To them the feud with Caesar had become a higher
object than the welfare of the State." Cary
Lucan’s Pharsalia
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Such were the hidden motives of the chiefs;
But in the public life the seeds of war
Their hold had taken, such as are the doom
Of potent nations: and when fortune poured
Through Roman gates the booty of a world,
The curse of luxury, chief bane of states,
Fell on her sons. Farewell the ancient ways!
Behold the pomp profuse, the houses decked
With ornament; their hunger loathed the food
Of former days; men wore attire for dames
Scarce fitly fashioned; poverty was scorned,
Fruitful of warriors; and from all the world
Came that which ruins nations
Great was the glory in the minds of men,
Ambition lawful even at point of sword,
To rise above their country: might their law:
Decrees were forced from Senate and from Plebs:
Consul and Tribune broke the laws alike:
Bought were the fasces, and the people sold
For gain their favour: bribery's fatal curse
Triumvirate
Wealth from
empire
Declining moral
values
Ambition
Violence
corruption
The Protaganists
“When the principal combatants are Roman and members of the
elite, the difference between us and them is blurred”
Cynthia Damon
Caesar’s reality was that he had begun a Civil War with one
legion. All of Rome’s legions were under Pompey’s
command, but dispersed.
Justifying actions
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".They [the hostile senators] have
seduced Pompey . . . and led him
astray, through jealous belittling of
my merits . . . I ask you to defend
my reputation and standing against
the assaults of my enemies.“
Caesar, The Civil War, I.8.
A General and an Orator
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"Fellow-soldiers - you are joined with me in the
greatest of undertakings - neither the winter weather,
nor the delay of our comrades, nor the want of suitable
preparations shall check my onset. I consider rapidity
of movement the best substitute for all these
things...Let us oppose our good fortune to the winter
weather, our courage to the smallness of our numbers,
and to our want of supplies the abundance of the
enemy, which will be ours to take as soon as we touch
the land... It is needless to tell you that the most potent
thing in war is the unexpected...For my part I would
rather be sailing than talking, so that I may come to
Pompey's sight while he thinks me engaged in my
official duties in Rome.“

Caesar's speech to his soldiers in Brundisium after
Pompey's forces had escaped.
After the Rubicon?

The senatorial party had given command to Pompey but, as Pompey slowly
gathered his legions, Caesar took city after city in northern Italy, almost all
by peaceful surrender. It appeared that all of northern Italy would fall to
Caesar without a serious battle. Pompey was now in his late '50s, and had
not commanded troops in the field for 15 years. His slow response to
Caesar's invasion may have been a sign of age, or possibly a sign that the
legions available to the Republic in Italia had, in many cases, fought with
Caesar's legendary Gallic legions: their loyalty was debatable.
Pompey’s Strategy

Pompey intended to fight Caesar, not in Italia, but in Asia, an area of the
Roman world in which he had strong connections and many client-kings.
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Unfortunately, in the scramble to evacuate Rome, neither Pompey nor the
Senators thought to take charge of Rome's treasury, stored under the
Temple of Saturn. Caesar would find it intact when he entered Rome and
impounded the lot - 15,000 bars of golden, 30,000 bars of silver, and
30,000,000 sesterces in coin.
Cicero’s reaction

" But do you see what sort of man this is into whose
hands the state has fallen, how clever, alert, well
prepared? I verily believe that if he takes no lives and
touches no man's property those who dreaded him most
will become his warmest admirers." " Cicero, Selected
Letters, 67
Caesar’s approach- gently ,gently
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"...I had of my own accord decided to show all possible clemency
and to do my best to reconcile Pompey. Let us try whether by this
means we can win back the goodwill of all and enjoy a lasting
victory, seeing that others have not managed by cruelty to escape
hatred or to make their victories endure, except only L. Sulla, whom
I do not propose to imitate. Let this be the new style of conquest, to
make mercy and generosity our shield."
Cicero, quoting Caesar, Selected Letters, 68.
Stages of the Civil War
Stage 1
Aug 49Caesar defeats Pompey’s forces in Spain
& controls Massilia
October Caesar appointed Dictator of Rome
Stage 2
Dec 49Caesar pursuesPompey to Brundisium
And transports Troops toDyrrachium
Stage 3
Jan 48 Defeat at Dyrrachium
Stage 4
Aug 48 Victory atPharsalus
August 48 Caesar appointed Consul for 5 years
Stage 5
47,46,45 BC
Caesar fights the remnant Pompeian forces in
the Battles of Zela, Thapsus and Munda
44BC Caesar appointed Dictator Perpetuos
Caesar in Spain
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In Spain Caesar’s troops were
almost defeated because of the
loose order of the Spanish army.
Floodwaters had also blocked off
the supply routes but Caesar
devised a solution by building
bridges and transport ships. He
relentlessly pursued the
Pompeians who were surprised by
his celeritas
It took Caesar's augmented legions
less than six months - to August,
49 - to break the resistance of the
port of Massilia (Marseilles), which
had effectively declared for
Pompey, and to destroy Pompey's
armies in Spain.
Transporting the legions across the
Adriatic
Dyrrachium, The importance of
Logistics
Dyrrhachium was one of the rare defeats in
Caesar's career, which he readily admitted:
"Today my enemies would have finished the
war if they had a commander who knew how
to win a victory." (Appian, II, 62). But as
Caesar was consistent, so also was Pompey. At
the critical moment, he hesitated and lost his
chance of
delivering the decisive blow. When Caesar
rallied his soldiers and moved southeast,
hoping to lure Pompey away from his allimportant supply lines, Pompey initially
pursued him but then gave it up after a few
days, holding war councils instead about what
to do next. He apparently viewed what was to
come largely as a mopping-up operation. He
finally set off after Caesar only to meet him at
Pharsalus.
Trusting your Instincts
•But he [Pompey] had around him a
great number of senators of equal
status to himself .Some of them
lacked experience; some were
unreasonably elated by the
successes at Dyrrhachium; some
also by their superiority in numbers;
and some were thoroughly tired of
the war and keen to put an unduly
rapid end to it. They all urged
Pompeius to fight, constantly
drawing his attention to Caesar, who
kept on forming up his army and
offering battle.. "
• Appian, The Civil War, II, 67
Tactics
see website for animation
http://www.geocities.com/i_s_s_alpha/Pharsalus.html
Clemencia
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" When Pompeius' left wing crumbled, even then the legionaries retreated
step by step still locked in battle, while the allies retreated headlong,
making no resistance and shouting 'We've lost.'.Caesar then made a
particularly shrewd move to avoid another trial of strength and to ensure
that the result decided not an isolated battle, but the whole campaign. He
sent heralds into the ranks all over the battlefield, who ordered the victors
not to harm their fellow-countrymen, but attack only the allies.Caesar's
men, sweeping through them, began to kill the allies, who were unable to
resist, and the most tremendous carnage ensued. "
Appian, The Civil War, II, 80
Pompey flees Pharsalus

"In Pompey's camp could be seen artificial arbors, a
great weight of silver plate laid out, tents spread with
fresh turf and . . . covered with ivy, and many other
indications of extravagant indulgence and confidence in
victory; so that it could readily be judged that they had
no fears for the outcome of the day." Caesar, III, 96
Pompey flees to Egypt where Ptolemy V11 presents his head to
Caesar
In Caesar’s own words
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"They would have it so. I, Gaius Caesar, should have
been condemned despite all my achievements had I not
appealed to my army for help."
"…they all thought only of offices, financial rewards,
vengeance on their personal enemies and of how to
exploit their victory instead of how to win it."
Why did Caesar win the Civil War?
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1.His army was better and faster, allowing him always to be on the
offensive. His veterans were seasoned from the Gallic campaigns and he
made use of Gallic cavalry.
2.Caesar’s financial base was strong enough to reward his veterans. In the
post Marius era, a generals ability to support the soldiers was paramount in
determining his own invincibility.
3.Caesar demonstrated repeatedly, his clemencia to opponents and was
thus able to gather forces to his side; “ Caesar…incorporated in his own
forces all the contingents of troops which were being raised for Pompey in
the various states..”
Reasons for victory
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4.Pompey’s strategy was to defeat Caesar using superior naval power.
Whereas Caesar had 11 legions, Pompey commanded 7 in Spain and 2 in
Italy. In the east however Pompey could call on his clients to supply huge
contingents. Caesar did not have a fleet and hence did not pursue him
5.Caesar ,knowing the importance of logistics concentrated on Spain and
as well occupied grain supplying Sardinia and Sicily
6.In Spain, despite the disadvantage of blocked supply routes from
floodwaters, Caesar built ships and a bridge. His personal qualities of
daring relentlessness and celeritas, already shown in Gaul were now
ensuring victory in Spain.
Reasons for Victory
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7. At the battle of Dyrrachium the nature of generalship proved important.
Although Pompey had gained the upper hand and had encircled Caesar’s
troops, fearing an ambush, he did not pursue.
As Pompey pursued Caesar into Thessaly, he was reluctant to expose his
troops to the more experienced legions of Caesar, but he allowed himself
to be pressured by the nobles in the camp who were bent on a quick victory
On the plain of Pharsalus generalship and tactics decided the outcome.
Pompey’s forces were double that of Caesar’s. When Caesar saw the army
drawn up, with a concentration of cavalry on the left, Caesar quickly
reinforced the left flank with 6 cohorts. Despite the numerical disadvantage
Caesar’s troops, seasoned, fit and intensely loyal to him were able to defeat
Pompey.
Plutarch
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“ Pompey’s greatest mistake and Caesar’s cleverist
move was in having the battle so far away from any
naval engagement.”
“The gift which contributed most largely to Caesar's
success was an abnormally energetic ability to get
things done. This was conspicuously apparent in the
occupation of warfare in which he excelled all his
rivals.... His character was an amalgamation of genius,
method, culture, thoroughness, intellect and industry.”
Michael Grant
Cary, A History of Rome

“ The war between the
Caesarians and Pompeians
was unique among the conflicts
of ancient history in covering
the entire Mediterranean…In
this context the legions of
Caesar proved themselves the
most efficient infantry of ancient
times and their commander
exploited to the utmost their
tactical skill and endurance in
marching and entrenching.”
Historians on the Civil War
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" For Caesar publicly declared that only two things were needed to rule,
soldiers and money, and armies could only be held together with money…
since the Roman citizen force had inevitably changed into an army of
professional soldiers, the imperator with his veterans took the political
place of the patron and his clients. What some had feared and others
aspired to, for decades, was fully realized in the person of Caesar; the
conqueror of Gaul whom the old powers refused to recognize overwhelmed
all resistance and, on the strength of an authority based solely on the
loyalty of his soldiers, was reaching for the government of the Empire."
Gelzer, Caesar: Politician and Statesman
Epilogue: Triumph and Tragedy