Effects of Anxiety on
Sport Performance
October 3, 2002
Significant Theories
Drive Theory (Hull)
 Inverted-U (Yerkes & Dodson)
 Catastrophe (Hardy & Fazey)
 Multidimensional Anxiety (Martens,

Burton, & Vealey)
Zone of Optimal Functioning (Hanin)
 Flow State (Csikszentmihalyi)

Drive Theory (Hull, 1943)
Most simplistic of the theories
 P = f(H, D)
 H = Dominant response
 D = Arousal level (drive)

Drive Theory

Increased arousal (drive) will elicit the
dominant response

Response associate with strongest
potential to respond is the dominant
response
Drive Theory
Early in learning, or for complex tasks,
dominant response is the incorrect
response
 Late in learning, or for simple tasks,
dominant response is the correct
response

Drive Theory - Problems
No predictive ability
 Too simplistic
 No consideration of skill type (gross vs.
fine)
 Differentiation between anxiety &
arousal?

Multidimensional Anxiety Theory
(Martens, Burton, Vealey, 1990)
Focus on anxiety, not just arousal
 Distinction between cognitive &
somatic anxiety
 Cognitive anxiety always detrimental to
performance
 Somatic - beneficial OR detrimental
 Depends upon person

Inverted-U (Yerkes & Dodson,
1908)
Arousal/performance relationship is
curvilinear
 Arousal level for maximal performance
varies:

 Task
complexity
 # of decisions/responses increases
Inverted-U theory
Simpler tasks can be performed
successfully under higher arousal levels
than complex (examples?)
 Importance of performer’s skill level
 Klavora (1977); Sonstroem & Bernardo
(1982)

Inverted-U: Problems






Inability to precisely measure arousal
Equates anxiety with arousal
Circular reasoning
Overly simplistic
WHY??
Measurement issues: How much can arousal
levels be increased--legally & ethically?
Catastrophe Theory
(Hardy & Fazey, 1987)
Questions idea that small changes to
arousal = small changes in perf.
 If anxiety/arousal reach debilitating
levels, catastrophic results may occur
(Greg Norman)
 Cognitive vs. somatic anxiety
differences

Catastrophe Theory
Cognitive anxiety is low, somatic &
performance follow inverted-U
 Cognitive anxiety high, somatic &
performance are inverted-U to a point
 What happens after the “catastrophe”?

Catastrophe Theory
Research is supportive of this
relationship, however…
 Testing is difficult
 Predictions?

ZOF (Hanin, 1980)




Individual’s optimal pre-competition
psychological profile in relation to anxiety
Too far from optimal = lower performance
Equivalent of individual’s optimal state
anxiety score +/- .5 standard deviations
(CSAI)
Weaker opponents?
ZOF
Each athlete has individual ZOF
 Bandwidth of optimal function
 Situational or personal factors (task
type/athletic experience) cannot predict
optimal zone
 Cognitive anxiety or physiological ?

ZOF
Research generally supports
 Better predictor than inverted-U
 Problems

 No
explanation of how ZOF develops
 Why are best performances more likely in
optimal zone?
State of Flow (Csikszentmihalyi)
“Flow is a state of optimal experiencing
involving total absorption in a task, and
creating a state of consciousness where
optimal levels of functioning often
occur” (Jackson, 1995, p. 138)
 Autotelic experience - an activity
performed because it is it’s own reward

Defining Characteristics of Flow
Requirement of skill/challenge balance
 Merging of action/awareness
 Clearly defined goals
 Clear, unambiguous feedback
 Total concentration on skill being
performed

Defining Characteristics of Flow
Paradox of control
 Loss of self-awareness
 Loss of time awareness
 Autotelic experience
 Combination of emotional high and
personal best performance

Flow - Skill & Challenge Relationship
Flow = skilled but challenged
 Anxiety = challenged, but fears level of
skills
 Apathy = low skill level, low challenge
 Boredom = skilled, but unchallenging

Can Anxiety Benefit Performance?
Most research suggests anxiety is
detrimental to performance
 Labeling of info is important
 Muscle tension = preparedness?
 “Concern about performing well”?
 Imprecise measurement of what anxiety
is for athletes
