Teaching Learning Principles and
Practices
Learning Theories and Models
Unit – 3
Sohail Sajid
Principal
New Life College of Nursing
RN, DWA,DTA, Specialized in CHN, Post RN BScN
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Objectives
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Define learning
Discuss learning process
Discuss learning theories
Discuss Kolb’S and Tyler learning model
Analyze learning theories and models in
daily learning activities
• Compare teaching learning strategies which
enhance learning
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Learning
• When an individual gains knowledge, skill
and understanding the subject learning
changes attitude and behavior it is known as
learning.
• Learning is considered as a change in a
person has caused by experience.
(Basanvanthappa)
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Learning Process
• To learn is to acquire knowledge or skill.
Learning also may involve a change in
attitude or behavior. Children learn to
identify objects at an early age; teenagers
may learn to improve study habits; and
adults can learn to solve complex problems.
• The challenge for the aviation instructor is
to understand how people learn, and more
importantly, to be able to apply that
knowledge to the learning environment.
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Teaching Learning Process
• Teaching learning process is a transaction
or a complex cooperative and personal
relation between faculty and student.
(Basanvanthappa)
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Learning Theories
• Learning theory may be described as a body
of principles advocated by psychologists and
educators to explain how people acquire
skills, knowledge, and attitudes. Various
branches of learning theory are used in
formal training programs to improve and
accelerate the learning process. Key
concepts such as desired learning outcomes,
objectives of the training, and depth of
training also apply.
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Learning Theories
• When properly integrated, learning
principles, derived from theories, can be
useful to aviation instructors and developers
of instructional programs.
• Learning theories are conceptual
frameworks describing how information is
absorbed, processed, and retained
during learning. Cognitive, emotional, and
environmental influence
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Learning Theories
• Behaviorism
• Cognitivism
• Constructivism
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Behaviorism
• Behaviorism is a worldview that assumes a
learner is essentially passive, responding to
environmental stimuli. The learner starts off
as a clean schedule and behavior is shaped
through positive reinforcement or negative
reinforcement.
• Both positive reinforcement and negative
reinforcement increase the probability that
the antecedent behavior will happen again.
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Behaviorism
• In contrast, punishment (both positive and
negative) decreases the likelihood that the
antecedent behavior will happen again.
• Positive indicates the application of a
stimulus; Negative indicates the withholding
of a stimulus. Learning is therefore defined
as a change in behavior in the learner.
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Representations of the Learning
Process
• Behaviorism
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Stimulus-Response
Reinforced Behavior
Antecedent Behavior Consequence
Sequenced knowledge and skills presented in logical
limited steps
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Relevant Frameworks
• Behaviorism
– Programmed Instruction (logical
presentation of content, clear responses,
immediate knowledge of correctness)
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Key Principles: Behaviorism
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Learning happens when a correct
response is demonstrated following the
presentation of a specific environmental
stimulus.
• Emphasis is on observable and measurable
behaviors
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Goal of Instruction: Behaviorism
• Communicate or transfer behaviors
representing knowledge and skills to the
learner (does not consider mental processing)
• Instruction is to obtain the desired response
from the learner who is presented with a target
stimulus.
• Learner must know how to implement the
proper response as well as the conditions under
which the response is made.
• Instruction utilizes consequences and
reinforcement of learned behaviors
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Critiques on Behaviorism
• Behaviorism does not account for all kinds of
learning, since it disregards the activities of
the mind.
• Behaviorism does not explain some learning--such as the
recognition of new language patterns by young children-for which there is no reinforcement mechanism.
• Research has shown that animals adapt their reinforced
patterns to new information. For instance, a rat can shift
its behavior to respond to changes in the layout of a hole
it had previously mastered through reinforcements.
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Cognitivism
• Cognitivism focuses on the inner mental
activities – opening the “black box” of the
human mind is valuable and necessary for
understanding how people learn. Mental
processes such as thinking, memory,
knowing, and problem-solving need to be
explored. Knowledge can be seen as
diagram or symbolic mental constructions.
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Representations of the Learning
Process
• Cognitivism
– Cognitivism Learning Perspective
– Information Processing
– Schema (Plan)
– Mental Models
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Relevant Frameworks
• Cognitivism
– Events of Instruction (Conditions of Learning)
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Key Principles: Cognitivism
• Learning is a change of knowledge state
• Knowledge acquisition is described as a mental
activity that entails internal coding and
structuring by the learner.
• Learner is viewed as an active participant in
the learning process
• Emphasis is on the building blocks of
knowledge (e.g. identifying prerequisite
relationships of content)
• Emphasis on structuring, organizing and
sequencing information to facilitate optimal
processing
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Goal of Instruction: Cognitivism
• Communicate or transfer knowledge in the
most efficient, effective manner (mindindependent, can be mapped onto learners)
• Focus of instruction is to create learning or
change by encouraging the learner to use
appropriate learning strategies
• Learning results when information is stored in
memory in an organized, meaningful way.
• Teachers/designers are responsible for assisting
learners in organizing information in an
optimal way so that it can be readily learned
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Constructivism
• Constructivism states that learning is an active,
contextualized process of constructing
knowledge rather than acquiring it. Knowledge
is constructed based on personal experiences
and hypotheses of the environment. Learners
continuously test these hypotheses through
social negotiation. Each person has a different
interpretation and construction of knowledge
process. The learner is not a blank schedule
but brings past experiences and cultural
factors to a situation.
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Representations of the Learning
Process
• Constructivism
– Inquiry-based
– Discovery learning
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Relevant Frameworks
• Constructivism
– Cognitive Apprenticeship
– Cognitive Flexibility
– Situated Learning
– Zone of Proximal Development
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Key Principles: Constructivism
• Learners build personal interpretation of the
world based on experiences and interactions
• Knowledge is fixed in the context in which it is
used (authentic tasks in meaningful realistic
settings)
• Create original and situation-specific
understandings by "assembling" knowledge
from different sources appropriate to the
problem at hand (flexible use of knowledge)
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Goal of Instruction: Constructivism
• Build personal interpretations of the world based on
individual experiences and interactions (constantly
open to change, cannot achieve a predetermined,
"correct" meaning, knowledge emerges in relevant
contexts)
• Learning is an active process of constructing rather
than acquiring knowledge.
• Instruction is a process of supporting knowledge
construction rather than communicating knowledge
• Do not structure learning for the task, but engage
learner in the actual use of the tools in real world
situations.
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The Experiential Learning Cycle
• David Kolb published his learning styles
model in 1984 from which he developed his
learning style inventory.
• Kolb's experiential learning theory works
on two levels: a four stage cycle of learning
and four separate learning styles. Much of
Kolb’s theory is concerned with the
learner’s internal cognitive processes.
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Cont
• Kolb states that learning involves the
achievement of abstract concepts that can
be applied flexibly in a range of
situations. In Kolb’s theory, the force for
the development of new concepts is
provided by new experiences.
• “Learning is the process whereby
knowledge is created through the
transformation of experience” (Kolb, 1984).
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The Experiential Learning Cycle
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Description cont
1. Concrete Experience - (a new experience of situation
is encountered, or a reinterpretation of existing
experience).
2. Reflective Observation ( the new experience of
particular importance are any inconsistencies
between experience and understanding).
3. Abstract Conceptualization (Reflection gives rise to
a new idea, or a modification of an existing abstract
concept).
4. Active Experimentation (the learner applies them to
the world around them to see what results).
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Stages of Four Cycles
Effective learning is seen when a person
progresses through a cycle of four stages.
(1) having a concrete experience followed by
(2) observation of and reflection on that
experience which leads to
(3) the formation of abstract concepts (analysis)
and generalizations (conclusions) which are
then
(4) used to test hypothesis in future situations,
resulting in new experiences.
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Stages of Four Cycles
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Kolb’s Experiential Learning
Model?
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According to Kolb, “Knowledge results
from the combination of grasping
experience and transforming it.” In his
model, there are four distinct segments to
learning:
Description of Concrete experience
Reflections
Generalizations/Principles/Theories
Testing and Application
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Applying Kolb’s Model to Your Essay
• Description of Concrete experience
Discuss your experiences with the way your
body reacts to specific types of foods,
namely proteins, carbohydrates, and fats,
and how these contribute to your overall
health.
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Reflections
• Describe your feelings about your
experiences and how your thoughts,
attitudes and observations developed
through the reflective process. For instance,
as you experimented with different foods,
how did your thoughts change about your
nutrition plan? Did you grow to like foods
that you didn’t like before? Explain.
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Generalizations/Principles/Theories
• Explain specific theories and principles of
the physiology of proteins, carbohydrates
and fats and how they support your
knowledge of the topic in the area of
nutrition and health. Discuss what your
health care provider explained to you about
this topic.
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Testing and Application
• Discuss how you tested the theories about
protein, carbohydrates and fat. Did
applying a particular principle bring about
the desired outcome? Why or why not? You
can add more to this discussion by writing
about how more recent experiences have
impacted your generalizations, principles
and theories.
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Tyler learning Model
• The Tyler Model is often referred to as the
‘objective model’ because of it’s objective
approach to educational evaluation.
• It emphasizes consistency among
objectives, learning experiences, and
outcomes.
• Curriculum objectives indicate both
behavior to be developed and area of
content to be applied (Keating, 2006)
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Tyler’s Four Principles of Teaching
• Defining Appropriate Learning Objectives
• Establishing Useful Learning Experiences
• Organizing Learning Experiences to Have a
Maximum Cumulative Effect
• Evaluating the Curriculum and Revising
Those Aspects That Did Not Prove to be
Effective (Keating, 2006)
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Teaching Strategies Which Enhance
Learning
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Active Learning
Collaborative/Cooperative Learning
Critical Thinking
Discussion Strategies
Experiential Learning
Humor in the Classroom
Interdisciplinary Teaching
Learner-Centered Teaching
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Teaching Strategies Which Enhance
Learning
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Learning Communities
Lecture Strategies
Problem-Based Learning
Service Learning
Social Networking Tools
Teaching with Cases
Team Teaching
Writing Assignments
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Learning Strategies which Enhance
Teaching
1. Have students lead conferences with each
other and with you. When students take the
lead, their interest and confidence rises.
2. When you are delivering instruction, pause
frequently and have students write a summary
of what you have said in the previous 3-5
minutes.
3. Brainstorm ideas.
4. Allow students opportunities to independently
read selections of their own choosing.
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Learning Strategies which Enhance
Teaching
5. Ask the entire class an interesting general
question that relates to the topic under
study.
6. Have students participate in small group
Round Robin activities.
7. Have students make flashcards and use
them to study together.
8. Ask students to model the right way to do
something or answer a question.
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Learning Strategies which Enhance
Learning
9. If your subject matter lends itself, have
students role play in brief sketches.
10. Offer students opportunities to learn their
vocabulary words and other facts in puzzles
of various types.
11. Have students sit in a circle.
12. Hold sporting events. Divide your students
into teams,
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Learning Strategies which Enhance
Learning
13. Stage a fishbowl question and discussion
group.
14. Ask students to create questions that they
believe could possibly stump their classmates.
15. Give students a brief passage and have them
read it silently. Then ask them to comment on
the passage or answer questions about it.
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Any Question
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Thank you
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