Schedules of Reinforcement:
• Continuous reinforcement:
– Reinforce every single time the animal performs the
response
– Use for teaching the animal the contingency
– Problem: Satiation
• Solution: only reinforce occasionally
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Partial reinforcement
Can reinforce occasionally based on time
Can reinforce occasionally based on amount
Can make it predictable or unpredictable
Partial Reinforcement Schedules
• Fixed Ratio: every nth response is reinforced
• Fixed interval: the first response after x amount of
time is reinforced
• Variable ratio: on average of every nth response is
reinforced
• Variable interval: the first response after an
average of x amount of time is reinforced
Differential Reinforcement schedules
• Only reinforce some responses
• Is a criteria regarding the rate or type of the
response
• Several examples:
– DRO
– DRL
– DRH
DRO: differential reinforcement of
other behavior (responses)
• Use when want to decrease a target behavior
and increase anything BUT that response
• Reinforce any response BUT the target
response
• Often used as alternative to extinction
– E.g., SIB behavior
– Reinforce anything EXCEPT hitting self
DRH: differential reinforcement of
High rates of responding
• Use when want to maintain a high rate of responding
• Reinforce as long as the rate of reinforcement remains
at or above a set rate for X amount of time
• Often used to maintain on-task behavior
– E.g., data entry: must maintain so many keystrokes/min or
begin to lose pay
– Use in clinical setting for attention: as long as engaging in X
academic behavior at or above a certain rate, then get a
reinforcer
DRL: differential reinforcement of LOW
rates of responding
• Use when want to maintain a low rate of responding
• Reinforce as long as the rate of reinforcement remains
at or below a set rate for X amount of time
• Often used to control inappropriate behavior
– E.g., talking out: as long as have only 3 talk outs per school
day, then earn points on behavior chart
– Use because it is virtually impossible to extinguish
behavior, but then control it at lowest rate possible.
Variations of Reinforcement Limited Hold
• There is a limited time when the reinforcer is available:
– Like a “fast pass”: earned the reinforcer, but must pick it up
within 5 seconds or it is lost
• applied when a faster rate of responding is desired with a fixed
interval schedule
• By limiting how long the reinforcer is available following the end of
the interval, responding can be speeded up
Time-based Schedules
• Unlike typical schedules, NO response contingency
• Passage of time provides reinforcement
• Fixed Time or Variable Time schedules
– FT 60 sec: every 60 seconds a reinforcer is delivered
independent of responding
– VT 60 sec schedule: on average of every 60 seconds….
• Often used to study superstitious behavior
• Or: used as convenience once responding is established
(organism may not pick up that contingency is gone)
Contingency-Shaped vs. RuleGoverned Behaviors
• Contingency-Shaped Behaviors—Behavior that
is controlled by the schedule of reinforcement
or punishment.
• Rule-Governed Behaviors—Behavior that is
controlled by a verbal or mental rule about
how to behave.
Operant Behavior
can involve BOTH
• Obviously, reinforcement schedules can control responding
• So can “rules”:
•
heuristics
•
algorithms
•
concepts and concept formation
• operant conditioning can have rules, for example, the factors
affecting reinforcement.
Comparison of Ratio and Interval
Schedules: Why different patterns?
• Similarities:
– Both show fixed vs. variable effects
– More pausing with fixed schedules…greater postreinforcement pause
– Variable schedules produce faster, steadier responding
• But: important differences
– Reynolds (1975)
• Compared pecking rate of pigeons on VI vs. VR schedules
• FASTER responding for VR schedule
Why faster VR than VI responding?
• Second part of Reynolds (1975)
– Used a yoked schedule:
• On bird on VR, one on VI
• Yoked the rate of reinforcement
– When the bird on VR schedule was 1 response shy of reinforcer,
waiting time ended for bird on VI schedule
– Thus, both birds got same number of reinforcers
• Even with this the bird on VI schedule pecked more slowly
– Replications support this finding
• In pigeons, rats, college students
• Appears to be strong phenomena
If a subject is reinforced for a response
that occurs shortl
Explanation 1: IRT reinforcement
• IRTs: Inter-response times
– If a subject is reinforced for responding that occurs
shortly after the preceding response, then a short IRT
is reinforced, long IRT is not
– And vice versa: if reinforced for long IRTs, then make
more long IRTs
• Compare VR and VI schedules:
– Short IRTs are reinforced on VR schedules
– Long IRTs are more likely reinforced on VI schedules
– Even when the rate of reinforcement is controlled!
Explanation 2: Feedback functions
• Molar vs. molecular explanations of behavior
– Molar:
• Global assessment
• Animal compares behavior across long time horizon
• Whole session or even across session assessment
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Molecular:
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Momentary assessment
Animal compares next response to last response
Moment to moment assessment of setting
But which does the animal do?
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Answer is, as usual, both
We momentarily maximize
But we also engage in molar maximizing!
Explanation 2: Feedback functions
• Organisms do not base rate of responding only on
rate of reinforcement directly tied to that
responding
• Instead, organisms compare within and across
settings
• Use CONTEXT to compare response rate
– Again, momentary in some situations
– More molar in others
Explanation 2: Feedback functions
• Feedback functions:
– Reinforcement strengthens the relationship
between the response and the reinforcer
– Does this by providing information regarding this
relationship
• Feedback function of reward and punishment
are critical for developing these contingency
rules and more molar patterns of responding
Feedback on VR vs VI schedules
• Relationship between responding and
reinforcement on VR schedule:
– More responses = more reinforcers
– The way to increase reinforcement rate is to
increase response rate
– In a sense, organism “is in charge” of its own
payoff rate
– Faster responding = more reinforcers
Feedback on VR vs VI schedules
• Relationship between responding and
reinforcement on VI schedule:
– Passage of time = reinforcer
– No way “speed up” the reinforcement rate
– In a sense, time “is in charge” of payoff rate
– Faster responding does not “pay”, is not
optimizing
What happens when combine
schedules of reinforcement?
• Concurrent schedules
• Conjunctive schedules
• Chained schedules
• And so on…..
Concurrent Schedules
• Two or more basic schedules operating
independently at the same time for two or more
different behaviors
– organism has a choice of behaviors and schedules
– You can take notes or daydream (but not really do
both at same time)
• Provides better analog for real-life situations
Concurrent Schedules (cont’d)
• When similar reinforcement is scheduled
for each of the concurrent responses:
– response receiving higher frequency of
reinforcement will increase in rate
– the response requiring least effort will increase in
rate
– the response providing the most immediate
reinforcement will increase in rate
• Important in applied situations!
Multiple Schedules
• Two or more basic schedules operating independently and
ALTERNATING such that 1 is in effect when the other is not
– organism is presented with first one schedule and then the
other
– You can go to Psy 463 or you attend P462, but you can’t go to
both at the same time
•
• Organism makes comparisons ACROSS the schedules
– Which is more reinforcing?
– More responding for richer schedule
• Again, provides better analog for real-life situations
Chained Schedules
• Two or more basic schedule requirements are in place,
– one schedule occurring at a time
– but in a specified sequence
• Usually a cue that is presented to signal specific schedule
– present as long as the schedule is in effect
• Reinforcement for responding in the 1st component is the
presentation of the 2nd
• Reinforcement does not occur until the final component
is performed
Conjunctive Schedules
• The requirements for two or more schedules must
be met simultaneously
– FI and FR schedule
– Must complete the scheduled time to reinforcer, then
must complete the FR requirement before get reinforcer
• Task/interval interactions
– When the task requirements are high and the interval is short,
steady work throughout the interval will be the result
– When task requirements are low and the interval long, many
nontask behaviors will be observed
Organism now “compares”
across settings
• With 2 or more schedules of reinforcement in
effect, animal will compare the two schedules
– Assume that the organism will maximize
• Get the most reinforcement it can get out of the
situations
• Smart organisms will split their time between the
various schedules or form an exclusive choice
Organism now “compares”
across settings
• Conc VI VI schedules:
– Two VI schedules in effect at the same time
– One is better than the other: conc VI 60 VI 15
• VI 60 pays off 1 time per minute
• VI 15 pays off 4 times per minute
• What is the MAX amount of reinforcers (on
average) an organism can earn per minute?
• How should organism split its time?
Organism now “compares”
across settings
• Conc VR VR schedules:
– Two VR schedules in effect at the same time
– One is better (richer) than the other: conc VR 10 VR5
• VR 10 pays off after an average of 10 responses
• VR 5 pays off after an average of 5 responses
• What is the MAX amount of reinforcers (on
average) an organism can earn per minute?
• How should organism split its time?
Interesting phenomenon:
Behavioral Contrast
• Behavioral contrast
– change in the strength of one response that occurs when the
rate of reward of a second response, or of the first response
under different conditions, is changed.
• Reynolds, 1966 : Pigeon in operant chamber, pecks a key for
food reward.
• Equivalent Multiple Schedule:
– VI 60 second schedule when key is red
– VI 60 second schedule when key is green,
– Food comes with equal frequency in either case.
• Then: Schedules Change:
– RED light predicts same VI 60 sec schedule
– GREEN light predicts EXT in one phase
– GREEN light predicts VI 15 sec schedule in next phase
Behavior change in
Behavioral Contrast
• Positive contrast: occurs rate of responding to the red key goes up, even
though the frequency of reward in red component remains unchanged.
• Remember: Phase 1: mult VI 60 (red) VI 60 (green)  mult VI 60 (red)
EXT (green)
• VI 60 for red key did NOT change, only the green key schedule
changed
• Negative contrast: occurs when the rate of responding to the red key goes
DOWN even though the frequency of reward in the red component
remains unchanged
• Remember: Phase 1: mult VI 60 (red) VI 60 (green)  mult VI 60 (red)
VI 15 (green)
• VI 60 for red key did NOT change, only the green key schedule
changed
Robust phenomenon
• Contrast effect may occur following changes in the
• Amount
• frequency,
• nature of the reward
• Occurs with concurrent as well as multiple schedules
• Shown to occur with various experimental designs and
response measures (e.g. response rate, running speed)
• Shown to occur across many species (can’t say all because not
all have been tested!)
Pullman Effect
Spokane, Wa
Seattle
Pullman, Wa
Reinforcement options in Pullman:
• In Boston
– Go out to bars (many, many options)
– Take a warm bath (CONSTANT component)
• In Pullman:
– Go out to bar (1 bar, only 1 bar)
– Take a warm bath
• Remember: Pullman is:
• 100 miles from Spokane
• 500 miles from Seattle
• Next “other” city over 100,000:
– Minneapolis
– Las Vegas
• What happens to rate of warm bath taking in Pullman compared to
Boston?
Why behavioral contrast?
• Why does the animal change its response rate
to the unchanged/constant component?
• Is this optimizing?
– Remember, this is a VI schedule, not a VR
schedule
– If you use VR schedules, get exclusive choice to
easier/faster schedule.