Chapter 8
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Memory - an active system that receives information
from the senses, organizes and alters it as it stores it
away, and then retrieves the information from
storage.
Information-processing model - model of memory
that assumes the processing of information for
memory storage is similar to the way a computer
processes memory in a series of three stages
▪ Encoding - the set of mental operations that people
perform on sensory information to convert that
information into a form that is usable in the brain’s
storage systems.
▪ Storage - holding onto information for some period of
time.
▪ Retrieval - getting information that is in storage into a
form that can be used.
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Sensory memory – brief recording of sensory
information
Short-term memory – memory that holds few items
briefly before info is forgotten
 Working Memory- conscious, active processing of auditory and
visual-spatial information and long term memory
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Long –term memory – relatively permanent and
limitless storage of memory.
Atkinson and Shiffrin
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Automatic Processing - tendency of certain kinds
of information to enter long-term memory with
little or no effortful encoding.
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Space- a certain place where an item is located
Time- sequence of the days events
Frequency- how many times something occurs
Well-learned information- words
Parallel Processing- processing of many things
simultaneously
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Encoding that requires attention and conscious
effort
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Rehearsal- conscious Repetition
 Herman Ebbinghaus- More times he practiced a list of
nonsense syllables the fewer repetitions it took the
next day
▪ As rehearsal increases, relearning time decreases
 Overlearning- additional rehearsal after we learn
increases retention
citamotua emoceb nac gnissecorp luftroffE
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Spacing Effect- we retain information when our
rehearsal is distributed over time rather than
cramming
 Testing Effect- retention checks
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Serial Position Effect- tend to remember the
first and last items on a list
 Primacy effect - tendency to remember information
at the beginning of a body of information better than
the information that follows.
 Recency effect - tendency to remember information
at the end of a body of information better than the
information ahead of it.
Menu
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Levels-of-processing model - model of memory that
assumes information that is more “deeply processed,” or
processed according to its meaning rather than just the
sound or physical characteristics of the word or words, will
be remembered more efficiently and for a longer period of
time.
 Shallow Processing- basic understanding; think a test in school
▪ Maintenance Rehearsal- simple repetition as a means to encode what we
were taught
▪ We do not place meaning!
 Deep Processing- adding meaning and making connections to
information we are taking in
▪ Elaborate Rehearsal- thinking about meanings or uses of some concept
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Visual Encoding: the
encoding of picture
images. (mental picture)
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Acoustic Encoding: the
encoding of sound,
especially the sounds of
words. (rhythm- fav. Song)
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Imagery – visual images help us remember
concrete words (aided by semantic encoding
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Rosy Retrospection – recalling high points,
forgetting the worst
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Mnemonic Devices – memory aids that use
visual images and organizational devices
(doesn’t have to be visual)
▪ Peg word system – memorizing a jingle
▪ Example: Name Game
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Chunking - Organizing items into familiar,
manageable units.
▪ 1-7-7-6-1-4-9-2-1-8-1-2-1-9-4-1
▪ Acronym’s
▪ HOMES
▪ ROY G. BIV
▪ GE ADDS GN????
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Schemas- information tied to previous
learned information
Types of MemorySensory Memory
1. Short- Term (Working) Memory
2.Long-Term Memory
3. Prospective vs. Retrospective
Memory
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Short-term memory (STM) (working
memory) - the memory system in
which information is held for brief
periods of time while being used.
 Selective attention – the ability to focus
on only one stimulus from among all
sensory input.
 Conclusions are that the capacity of STM
is about seven items or pieces of
information, plus or minus two items, or
from five to nine bits of information.
▪ “magical number” = 7 + or – 2
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Working Memory
 conscious, active processing of auditory and visual-
spatial information and long term memory
Duration: 30 sec. or
less
Capacity: Limited
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Long-term memory (LTM) - the system
of memory into which all the
information is placed to be kept more
or less permanently.
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Elaborative rehearsal - a method of
transferring information from STM into
LTM by making that information
meaningful in some way.
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Aplysia- California sea slug responsible for our
understanding of neural learning and synaptic strength
 Classical Conditioning with water and shock
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Long-Term Potential (LTP)- increase in a synapses
firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation
 Increased release of serotonin at synaptic gaps
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Stress Hormones- when released trigger the brain to
think something important has happened
 Amygdala produces more proteins for memory
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Implicit or Procedural (nondeclarative)
memory - type of long-term memory
including memory for skills, procedures,
habits, and conditioned responses. These
memories are not conscious but are
implied to exist because they affect
conscious behavior. CEREBELLUM
 Shoot a basketball, ride a bike, tie shoes
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Skills that people know how to do.
 Also include emotional associations, habits,
and simple conditioned reflexes that may or
may not be in conscious awareness. ( like
procedural memories)
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Explicit memory – type of long-term
memory containing information that
is conscious and known (memory for
facts). HIPPOCAMPUS
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All the things that people know.
 Semantic memory (facts and knowledge) -
containing general knowledge, such as
knowledge of language and information
learned in formal education.
 Episodic memory (personally experienced
events)- containing personal information
not readily available to others, such as
daily activities and events.
▪ Flashbulb memory- detailed memories of
emotionally charged events- death, wedding,
birth, strong social /cultural event
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Prospective Memory- Remembering to
perform intended actions in the future
 Taking medication
 Wishing someone happy birthday
 Buying your significant other flowers
▪ Half of everyday forgetting is due to prospective
memory failures
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Retrospective Memory- memory for people,
events, or objects encountered or
experienced in the past
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Recall - type of memory retrieval in which
the information to be retrieved must be
“pulled” from memory with very few
external cues.
▪ fill-in-the blank test
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Recognition - the ability to match a piece of
information or a stimulus to a stored image
or fact.
▪ multiple-choice test
 Retrieval failure – recall has failed (at least
temporarily).
▪ Tip of the tongue phenomenon.
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Relearning- learning material for the
second time, saves time
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Retrieval cue – a stimulus for remembering.
 “Anchor Point”
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State Dependent Memory
 memories formed during a particular physiological or
psychological state will be easier to recall while in a
similar state.
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Mood Congruent Memory
 Recalling memories consistent with current mood
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Context Dependent Memory
 Recalling memories consistent with the same
context
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Déjà Vu means “I've experienced this before.”
Cues from the current situation may
unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier
similar experience.
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Sins of Forgetting
▪ Absent-mindedness
▪ Transience- decay over time
▪ Blocking
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Sins of distortion
▪ Misattribution- confusing the source
▪ Suggestibility- misinformation
▪ Bias
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Sin of intrusion
▪ Persistence- unwanted memories
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Encoding failure - failure to process
information into memory.
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Memory trace - physical change in the brain that
occurs when a memory is formed. (ENGRAM)
 Storage Decay - loss of memory due to the passage of time,
during which the memory trace is not used.
 Disuse - another name for decay, assuming that memories
that are not used will eventually decay and disappear.
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Curve of forgetting - a graph showing a distinct
pattern in which forgetting is very fast within the
first hour after learning a list and then tapers off
gradually at about 20-30%
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Proactive interference - memory retrieval problem that
occurs when older information prevents or interferes
with the retrieval of newer information. (forward-acting)
Retroactive interference - memory retrieval problem that
occurs when newer information prevents or interferes
with the retrieval of older information. (backward-acting)
Proactive
interference –
problem
driving in
England after
learning in
US.
LO 6.10 Different causes of forgetting
AP Principles of effective encoding, storage, and construction of memories
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Stroop Effect- demonstration of the reaction time of a task
and is often used to demonstrate the nature of automatic
processing versus conscious visual control
 When the meaning of a word and its color are congruent, such as
the word "BLUE" written in blue color, it is easy to recognize the
actual color of the word.
 But when the meaning of the word is incongruent with the color,
such as "BLUE" written in red color, it creates a conflict between
the color and the word's meaning.
 The "conflict" between two brain processes are word-
recognition and color-recognition
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Misinformation effect - the tendency of
misleading information presented after an
event to alter the memories of the event
itself.
Source Amnesia- we retain the memory of
the event, but not of the context in which
we acquired
 Motivated
Forgetting
 People unknowingly revise
their memories.
 Repression
 Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
 A defense mechanism that
banishes painful memories from
consciousness to minimize
anxiety
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Elizabeth Loftus study.
 Showed that what people see and hear
about an event after the fact can easily
affect the accuracy of their memories of
that event.
▪ Eye witness testimony not always reliable.
▪ Admissible in court, but mistakes are made
 False positive – error of recognition in
which people think that they recognize
some stimulus that is not actually in
memory
 60 Minutes
Retrograde amnesia - loss of memory from the
point of some injury or trauma backwards, or
loss of memory for the past.
 Anterograde amnesia - loss of memory from the
point of injury or trauma forward, or the inability
to form new long-term memories (“senile
dementia”).
 Infantile amnesia - the inability to retrieve
memories from much before age 3.
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 Autobiographical memory - the memory for events
and facts related to one’s personal life story (usually
after age 3).
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The primary memory difficulty in Alzheimer’s is
anterograde amnesia, although retrograde amnesia can
also occur as the disease progresses.
There are various drugs in use or in development for use
in slowing or stopping the progression of Alzheimer’s
disease.
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Study repeatedly
Make the material meaningful
Activate retrieval cues
Use mnemonic devices
Minimize interference
Sleep more
Test your own knowledge, both to rehearse it
and to help determine what you do not yet
know