Plato’s Republic
Unit 2: Greece
Honors 2101, Fall 2006
Bryan Benham
Plato (429-348)
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Student of Socrates
Wrote Socratic “Dialogues”
Established first school: The Academy
Teacher of Aristotle
The Republic represents the 1st: political
treatise, educational reform, systematic
psychological and epistemological theory,
aesthetics, and theory of virtue or the good
(just) life.
Structure of Republic
Elenchus
Main
Argument
Digressions
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VIII
VII
IX
X
Justice (dikaiosune)
Elenchus (Bk. I)
– dialogue on conventional definitions of Justice.
Main Argument
– a response to challenge in Bk. II to (a) define
justice, and (b) show that justice is better than
injustice.
Digressions
– provides a theory of knowledge/wisdom,
aesthetics, and afterlife in support of main
argument.
Book I: 3 Definitions of Justice
• Cephalus (327a-337d)
– Justice is honesty in word and deed or simply
paying one’s debts and obligations.
• Polemarchus (331e-336a)
– Justice is helping friends and harming enemies, or
giving everyone his due.
• Thrasymachus (336b-354e)
– Justice is the interest of the strong (rulers) and is
less profitable than injustice.
Book I: First Definition
• Cephalus (327a-337d)
– Justice is honesty in word and deed or simply
paying one’s debts and obligations.
• Socrates Replies: imagine an angry friend
wants his weapon back to harm another…
Cephalus’ definition is inadequate…need
further determination of justice (doing what is
right)
Book I: Second Definition
• Polemarchus (331e-336a)
– Justice is helping friends and harming enemies, or
giving everyone his due.
• Socrates Replies: difficult to determine what
is appropriate to each; it may be appropriate
to be unjust at times…P’s definition is
inconsistent (never just to harm others?)
Book I: Third Definition
• Thrasymachus (336b-354e)
– Justice is the interest of the strong (rulers) and is
less profitable than injustice.
• A type of relativism or distortion of the just by the rulers.
• (a new “golden rule” = he with the gold makes the rules)
– Cf. Melian Dialogue or Plague in Athens
• Socrates Replies: (difficult)
– T suggests only ideology, not independent ethics
– But elenchus can’t be employed if ideological
– Abandon the elenchus?
At this point…
• In Euthyphro Plato/Socrates rejects a divine
justification for morality (piety).
• In Republic, Bk. 1, Plato rejects conventional
definitions of morality (justice).
• What is the alternative left to Plato?
Book II: The Problem
• Glaucon (& Adeimantus) argues justice
is only instrumentally good; that the life
of the unjust is better, and only the
appearance of justice is worthwhile.
• Ring of Gyges (359b-360d)
Book II: The Challenge
a) What is justice, if not merely the
interest of the powerful?
b) Show that the just life is intrinsically
valuable, and not just instrumentally
valuable.
Book II: Socrates Replies
• Analogy with justice in the soul and
justice in the city. (368c-e)
• Two Principles of a City:
1) No one is self-sufficient, need cooperation
2) Individuals are naturally better/worse at
performing some task
Organization of Cities
• Since no one can do everything, individuals
should focus their energies in those areas for
which they have a natural abilities. In this way
the city will best meet its needs.
• Healthy City
– City that meets all the basic needs without
flourish.
• Luxurious City
– City that meets all the basic needs plus some
luxuries desired by citizens.
Book III (n/a)
• Education of the Guardians…
– Happiness and Virtue (460b ff.)
• Tripartite Division of the City (~412)
– Rulers*
– Guardians* (protectors of the city)
– Producers & Craftsmen
• Myth of Metals (“noble lie”; ~414)
– Gold = rational
– Silver = spirited
– Iron = appetitive
Book IV
• Virtues of the Good City
• Tripartite Soul
• Virtues of the Soul
• Justice in the Soul*
Book IV:
Virtues of the Good City
Wisdom
Knowledge and judgment
regarding how the city is best
served.
Chief virtue of Rulers
(& Guardians)
Courage
Spirit (honor) tempered with
reason, a type of perseverance
in the face of fear.
Chief virtue of
Guardians
(Auxillaries or Soldiers)
A type of harmony or order
between parts; an agreement
about who does what (e.g.,
rulers rule)
A well ordered society.
Doing one’s work/role well, and
not doing someone else’s
work/role.
An effect of proper
functioning
Moderation
(Sophrosune)
Justice
Book IV
Tripartite Soul
• Just as in the city so too in the soul (434d)
• Three Parts:
– Rational part: Reason, judgment, etc.
– Spirited part: Anger, ambition, courage, etc.
– Appetitive part: Desire for food, sex, comfort, etc.
Book IV
Virtues of the Soul
City
Virtue
Soul
Rulers
Wisdom
Rational
Soldiers
Courage
Spirited
Producers &
Craftsmen
Appetitive
Justice?
Book IV
Justice in the Soul
Answer to 1st Challenge: What is justice, if not merely
the interest of the powerful?
By Analogy…
Just as justice in the city is each part performing its natural
role, we should expect the soul to be just in the same way
(434d ff.)
Justice in the soul is each part doing its function well.
Rational part rules, spirited part motivates good action, and
the appetitive is to be ruled by the rational and spirited parts.
Injustice in the soul amounts to civil war or revolution.
Book VIII (n/a)
Different types of character in a city/soul and
the level of injustice in each:
Aristocracy
Timocracy
Oligarchy
Democracy
Worst Tyranny
Best
Book IX
The Just Life is Better
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Answer to 2nd Challenge
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Three Demonstrations that justice is better.
1.
2.
3.
Unjust soul is wretched, unfree, slavish, fearful, etc. Thus,
justice is most happy (576c, ff.)
Rational pursuits (life) have greater and longer lasting
pleasure associated with it; spirited and appetitive
pleasures are only transitory (580d, ff.).
A just person, ruled by reason, comes closer to truth and
knowledge, and so is better off -- truth is intrinsically good
because it is the most real (583b, ff).
Main Argument Summary
• Analogy between city and soul
– Parts…
– Virtues…
– Justice…
• Questions
– Do you agree with the analogy?
– Do you think Plato is right about justice?
Structure of Republic
Elenchus
Main
Argument
Digressions
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VIII
VII
IX
X
Books V, VI, VII
(473d-521a)
• Socrates has just laid out the organization
and virtues of the ideal city: Kallipolis
• Glaucon and Adaimantus ask whether this is
a dream or something possible: How is
Kallipolis possible?
• Answer: What is needed are PhilosopherKings
Philosopher-Kings
Until philosophers rule as kings in their cities, or those who are
nowadays called kings and leading men become genuine and
adequate philosophers so that political power and philosophy
become thoroughly blended together, while the numerous
natures that now pursue either one exclusively are forcibly
prevented from doing so, cities will have no rest from evils, my
dear Glaucon, nor, I think, will the human race. And until that
happens, the same constitution we have now described in our
discussion will never be born to the extent that it can, or see the
light of the sun. It is this claim that has made me hesitate to
speak for so long. I say how very unbelievable it would sound,
since it is difficult to accept that there can be no happiness,
either public or private, in any other city.
(Repulbic, 474d)
Philosophers vs. Others?
• What distinguishes a philosopher from
others?
– Philosophers desire wisdom or truth in
whole, not merely in part;
– Genuine knowledge
• Distinction between knowledge, belief,
and ignorance
Distinctions
Knowledge
Belief
What is; Being;
What is and what is
always the same in all not; a mixture of both;
respect
mere appearance
“Philosophers”
“Philodoxers”
Ignorance
What is not
Idiots?
Knowledge of the Good…
• The philosopher’s nature, desiring the truth is
consistent with the type of nature we expect
in a ruler - guided by knowledge of what is
the good.
• Knowledge of the Good is the highest object
of knowledge.
• Sun, Line, and Cave to illustrate…
Analogy of the Sun
The sun is the light that connects what is seen with
the seer; the one connects the many.
Analogy of the Sun
The sun is the light that connects what is seen with
the seer; the one connects the many.
Seen
Seer
Analogy of the Sun
The sun is the light that connects what is seen with
the seer; the one connects the many.
ONE
(Definition)
Identifies
MANY
(Examples)
Seen
Seer
Analogy of the Sun
So…Knowledge of the good is like this:
Without knowledge of the definition
(sun), we would not know any of the
examples (seen); that is, we wouldn’t be
able to identify the examples.
Knowledge
Mathematical
Objects
“dranoia”:
Thought
Original Objects
“doxa”:
Belief, or trust
and faith (“pistis”)
Shadows or
reflections of
images
(509d-511e)
“noesis”:
Understanding or
intellection
Intelligible
Opinion
Divided Line
Form
(1st Principle)
“eikasia”:
Imagination
Sensible
(Visible)
Divided Line
• Levels of knowledge
– Highest levels are universal and intellectual
– Removed from sensible world
• Knowledge corresponds to degree of
reality
– More knowable = Closer to truth
– Closer to truth = More real (unchangeable)
Allegory of the Cave
(514a-521b)
Allegory of the Cave
(514a-521b)
Cave = Line
Sun = Form
Objects in world = mathematical objects
Objects behind wall = original objects
Shadows on wall = imagination
Also:
Model of education for
Philosopher-Kings
Quick Flashback…
A just person, ruled by reason, comes closer
to truth and knowledge, and so is better off -truth is intrinsically good because it is the
most real (Book IX, 583b).
Knowing the form of the Good (the first
principles) is to know what is real
(unchangeable) and so is not subject to the
vagarities of mere belief…thus better off…
What discourages philosophers
from becoming kings?
(487b-497a)
Masses don’t appreciate philosophy(-ers)
Philosophers are feared and/or ridiculed
Philosophers wouldn’t risk the danger
Philosophers, once they know the truth, don’t
want to return to worldly business
5. And its just plain difficult to be a
philosopher…think of the educational program
Plato lays out…
1.
2.
3.
4.
Book X (n/a)
• Immortality of the Soul
– Knowledge is knowledge of the real
– The real is incorruptible and thus immortal
– To know the real the soul must also be
incorruptible and thus immortal.
• Myth of Er and mimesis
– Story about afterlife and reincarnation
– Choosing lots for one’s next life
Concluding Thoughts
• Allegory of the Cave and levels of reality are
most influential ideas of Republic.
• Do you agree with the image of knowledge
depicted in the allegory?
– Agree that the knowable is the most real?
• Do you agree about philosopher-kings?
– Until philosophers rule as kings…cities will have no rest from
evils…nor, I think, will the human race…
Some Paper Topics
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When Plato speaks of justice, is he defining a state of political stability or a state
of psychological balance? Does this make a difference in understanding
justice?
Plato's ideal city turns out to be a totalitarian government ruled by an elite class
of individuals. Why does Plato think this must be so? Do you agree with Plato on
the necessity for a highly structured society to achieve justice? Is totalitarianism
necessarily a bad thing?
In the Euthyphro Plato rejects a divine justification for morality, in Book I of the
Republic Plato also rejects a common-sense notion of morality. What does
Plato offer as an alternative? Is this a viable alternative?
How would Plato respond to the Athenians in the Melesian Dialogue by
Thycydides? How do Thucydides and Plato compare in their conception of
justice? Which do you think is right?
How might Plato evaluate the actions of Achilles, Agamemnon or Hektor in terms
of the Tripartite theory of the soul and the proper place of reason?
Do you agree with Plato that the just (the good) person is always better off than
the unjust person, even if the just person receives no external benefit from being
just? In your response consider Glaucon’s challenge and the story of Gyges’ ring
in Book II of the Republic.
Discuss Plato’s claim that no genuine justice or happiness will be found unless
‘philosopher-kings’ rule.