• Most plants and animals have cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems
• A plant or animal body becomes structurally organized during growth and development
– Growth : cells increase in number, size, volume
– Development : specialized tissues, organs, and organ systems form
• Animals have “control centers” to regulate body function in the short-term, whereas plants have decentralized control over function
What are some of the challenges associated with large body size?
If all somatic cells in an organism have the same genetic information, how can cells specialize into tissues & organs?

= the maintenance of a dynamic equilibrium
• Plant and animal cells must be bathed in a relatively stable fluid that delivers nutrients and carries away metabolic wastes in order to stay alive
– Why might an organism’s internal environment change?
– Why is a stable internal environment important to an organism’s survival? Describe an example.
p. 7

What are the common challenges?
• O
2
& CO
2 gas exchange
• water-solute balance
• signaling molecules to guide events on the cellular level
• live within specific habitats, and respond to environmental threats
• Behavioral adaptations
– e.g. thermoregulation
• Cellular adaptations
– e.g. aclimatization
– intercellular communication
• Genetic adaptations
– new allele combinations
– mutations
Describe an example of a mechanism to adapt to short term changes in the environment. Is your example a behavioral or cellular adaptation? Where does it occur, and how long does it last?
Describe the scope of a genetic adaptation in terms of the number of individuals affected, and the time period over which it occurs.

Stable operating conditions in the internal environment (in the blood and tissue fluid) is maintained by the coordinated activities of cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems
High
Optimum range
Intolerance
Stress Stress
Intolerance homeostasis
Low
High
Internal Condition

How do genetically derived adaptive traits within a population come about?
– Crossing Over
– Independent assortment
– Fertilization
– New alleles (gene mutations)
Describe how a genome might be changed by these 4 mechanisms.
How might the gene pool be altered when these sources of variation arise?

What is a gene pool?
What is the relationship between a gene pool and a popluation?
What might cause changes in the gene pool?
http://www.brooklyn.cuny.edu/bc/ahp/LAD/C21/C21_GenePool.html
Is this evolution?

• Change in the structure of DNA in gametes.

• Rare!
– 1 gamete in 100,000-
1,000,000
• Neutral ( why?)
• Deleterious
– Changes the shape of a protein
– Stops synthesis of a protein too early
• Advantageous
What will likely happen to deleterious mutations in a population?

• Meticulous observation
• Considered numerous possible relationships, especially b/w animals and their environment
• 2 main points:
– Species evolved from ancestral species
– Natural selection was the mechanism for this evolutionary change

• Descent with modification
(aka evolution) is the explanation for life’s unity and diversity
– all organisms are related via a common ancestor
– adaptations developed as descendents from a common ancestor moved into new habitats (or the habitat changed)
Darwin’s metaphor for the history of life was a branching tree.

• Species have a great potential for reproduction
• Populations would increase exponentially if all individuals survived and reproduced

• Populations tend to remain stable over time, except for mild seasonal fluctuations and occasional severe fluctuations
Moose population on island in Lake Superior

• Natural resources are limited, i.e. there is a struggle for existence

• No two individuals are exactly the same; rather, every population displays enormous variability.

• Much of this variation is heritable
• However, Darwin did not know the mechanism of inheritance

1. Individuals within species are variable.
2. Some of these variations are passed onto offspring.
3. In every generation, more offspring are produced than can survive.
4. Survival and reproduction are not random.
The individuals that survive and go on to reproduce, are the ones with the most favorable variations.

• Organisms are adapted to their environments
• Camouflage is an example of evolutionary adaptation
A floral mantid (insect pollinator)

• Examples of “natural” selection over short periods of time
Is it fair to describe this as natural selection?
How is this similar to antibiotic resistance among pathogenic bacteria?
Evolution of resistance to insecticides in insect populations

• Selective breeding & artificial selection
Vegetables developed by humans from wild mustard plant through selective breeding

• Homologous structures
Forearm bones in mammals

Ribosomal structure (large subunit of bacterial ribosome)
• Molecular “record” – molecular homologies

• Fossil record
Fossil Trilobites
Elephant evolution based on fossils

Alterations to the Gene Pool:
• As individuals or gametes flow between populations, they become more similar. The reverse is also true.

Alterations to the Gene Pool:
• With low population size, alleles (i.e. traits) can disappear
How might this happen?
Has evolution occurred?
Is the population more fit?

Alterations to the Gene Pool:
Deaths due to pesticides decreased over time.
What determines which alleles are selected?

Alterations to the Gene Pool:
Previously, those babies that were too small did not survive and those that were too big had complications.
Does this imply that birth weight is an inherited trait?

Alterations to the Gene Pool:
Large billed individuals crack hard seeds.
Small billed individuals crack soft seeds.
Intermediate forms do not crack either seeds well.