Environmental Science
A Study of Interrelationships
Twelfth Edition
Enger & Smith
Chapter 12
Land-Use Planning
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Land-Use Planning
Outline
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The Need for Planning
Historical Forces That Shaped Land Use
Migration from the Central City to the Suburbs
Factors That Contribute to Sprawl
Problems Associated with Unplanned Urban
Growth
Outline
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Land-Use Planning Principles
Mechanisms for Implementing Land-Use Plans
Special Urban Planning Issues
Federal Government Land-Use Issues
The Need for Planning
 Between one-third and one-half of the world’s
surface has been altered by humans.
 Most land-use decisions are still based primarily
on economic considerations or short-term needs
rather than on unique analysis of the landscape.
 Once land has been converted to intensive human
use, it is generally unavailable for other uses.
Historical Forces That Shaped
Land Use
 Present land use in the United States:
• 47% - Crops and livestock
• 45% - Forests and natural areas
• 5% - Intensive human use
 This pattern of land use differs greatly from
original conditions experienced by immigrants
from New World.
Historical Forces That Shaped
Land Use
 The first U.S. colonists converted landscape to
farming, and then to towns and cities.
 Waterways provided the primary method of
transportation.
• This allowed exploration and development of
commerce.
• Early towns were usually built near water and at transfer
points between water systems.
Historical Forces That Shaped
Land Use
Water and urban centers
Historical Forces That Shaped Land Use
 North America remained essentially rural until
industrial growth began in last third of the 1800s.
 Cities grew because of:
• Industrial Revolution
– People migrated from farms to industrial jobs found in
cities.
• European immigrants
– Congregated in cities where jobs were available.
• Cultural, social, and artistic opportunities
Migration from the
Central City to the Suburbs
 In the early stages of the Industrial Revolution, a
lack of control over industry activities led to
polluted, undesirable waterways.
 As roads and rail transport became more
common, many left the waterway areas.
• Agricultural land surrounding towns was converted to
housing.
• Land began to be viewed as a commodity, not as a nonrenewable resource to be managed.
Migration from the
Central City to the Suburbs
 As cities grew, certain sections within each city
began to deteriorate.
 Pollution and crowding made cities undesirable
places to live.
 In the early 1900s, people who could afford to
move out of cities began to do so.
• 1950 - 60% urban population lived in central cities.
• 1990 - 30% urban population lived in central cities.
Migration from the
Central City to the Suburbs
Rural-to-urban population shift
Migration from the
Central City to the Suburbs
Rural-to-urban population shift
Migration from the
Central City to the Suburbs
 The convenience of a personal automobile
escalated decentralized housing patterns and
diminished importance of mass transit.
• This led to decreased energy efficiency.
• It increased the cost of supplying utility services.
Migration from the
Central City to the Suburbs
 Urban sprawl is a pattern of unplanned, lowdensity housing and commercial development
outside of cities.
• Land-use practices are fundamental to sustainability.
Two practices that have contributed to urban sprawl are:
– Zoning ordinances that isolate employment and shopping
services away from housing locations.
– Low-density planning aimed at creating automobile access
to increasing expanses of land.
Migration from the
Central City to the Suburbs
 Sprawl is typically characterized by:
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Excessive land consumption.
Low densities in comparison with older centers.
Lack of choice in ways to travel.
Fragmented open space, wide gaps in development,
and a scattered appearance.
• Lack of choice in housing types and prices.
Migration from the
Central City to the Suburbs
• Separation of uses into distinct areas.
• Repetitive one-story development.
• Commercial buildings surrounded by large parking
areas.
• Lack of public spaces and community centers.
Migration from the
Central City to the Suburbs
 Urban sprawl occurs in three ways:
• Development of exclusive, wealthy suburbs adjacent to
the city.
• Tract development is the construction of similar
residential units over large areas.
• Ribbon sprawl consists of commercial / industrial
buildings lining highways connecting housing
developments to the central city.
 A megalopolis is a merging of cities into large,
urban areas.
Migration from the
Central City to the Suburbs
Ribbon sprawl
Types of urban sprawl: Development of exclusive, Ribbon Sprawl, Track
Development
Migration from the
Central City to the Suburbs
Regional cities
Factors That Contribute to Sprawl
 Lifestyle
• Increased wealth of population is reflected in material
possessions, particularly the automobile and homes.
– A decentralized housing pattern is possible because high
rate of automobile ownership allows ease of movement.
 Economic
• Building on agricultural land is less expensive than to
build within established cities.
• Tax laws encourage home ownership.
Factors That Contribute to Sprawl
 Planning and Policy
• Historically, there was little coordination of effort as to
how cities should develop.
– Large cities have a huge number of political jurisdictions,
so coordination is difficult.
• Zoning ordinances prohibit land-use mixing.
– Ordinances specify minimum lot and house sizes.
• Government subsidizes the development of
decentralized cities.
– Local governments pay some costs of extending services
into new areas; costs are not passed on to builders.
Problems Associated
with Unplanned Growth
 Transportation
• As cities grew, little thought was given to transportation
corridors.
• Establishment of new corridors stimulates growth in
nearby areas, and the new corridors soon become
inadequate.
– Reliance on automobiles has required constant road
building.
– In Los Angeles, 70% of city’s surface area dedicated to
automobiles.
– The average person in the U.S. spends 9 hrs/week in an
automobile.
Problems Associated
with Unplanned Growth
 Air Pollution
• As traffic increases, so does air pollution.
• A centralized, efficient public transportation system
solves this problem, but it is difficult to achieve with a
highly dispersed population.
 Low Energy Efficiency
• Automobiles are inefficient transportation.
• Separation of homes and businesses requires additional
driving.
• Stop-and-go traffic patterns.
• Single-family homes are less efficient than multifamily
dwellings.
Problems Associated
with Unplanned Growth
 Loss of Sense of Community
• In many areas, people do not routinely walk through
their neighborhood, leaving them feeling isolated.
 Death of the Central City
• Currently less than 10% of people work in the central
city.
– There is less income to support public services.
 Higher Infrastructure Costs
• Extension of municipal services is more costly than
supplying services to areas already in the city.
Problems Associated
with Unplanned Growth
 Loss of Open Space
• Oftentimes open space planning is left out of
development plans.
 Loss of Farmland
• Flat, well-drained land is ideal for both farmland and
urban development.
• Several states have established programs that provide
protection to farmers who do not want to sell their land
to developers.
– These programs may require farmers to put their land in a
conservation easement.
Problems Associated
with Unplanned Growth
 Water Pollution Problems
• Large impervious surface areas lead to high runoff and
potential flooding.
 Floodplain Problems
• Many cities are located on floodplains because they
were originally established along waterways.
– The flat land is attractive to developers but would be better
put to use as open space or recreation.
• Development increases economic losses.
– Many communities have enacted floodplain zoning
ordinances.
Problems Associated
with Unplanned Growth
Flooding in floodplain in New Orleans following Hurricane Katrina
Problems Associated
with Unplanned Growth
 Wetlands Misuse
• Wetlands are areas that periodically are covered with
water.
• Many have been drained, filled, or used as landfills.
– U.S. has lost 53% of wetlands since the European
immigration began (not including Alaska).
– Wetlands play crucial role in reproductive phase of many
organisms.
– They also provide sediment filtration.
Problems Associated
with Unplanned Growth
 Other Land-Use Considerations
• Geological status must be considered in land-use
decisions.
– Building on earthquake-prone faults has led to the loss of
life and property.
– Building on unstable hillsides and fire-prone areas is also
unwise.
• Climate
– Building in chronically dry areas leads to water shortages.
Land-Use Planning Principles
 Land-use planning is a process of evaluating the
needs and wants of a population, the land
characteristics and value, and various alternative
solutions to land uses before changes are made.
• A basic rule should be to make as few changes as
possible.
Land-Use Planning Principles
 When changes are needed:
• Evaluate and record unique geological, geographic,
and biologic features.
• Preserve unique cultural or historical features.
• Conserve open space and environmental features.
• Recognize and calculate the cost of additional changes
required to accommodate altered land use.
Land-Use Planning Principles
• Plan for mixed uses in close proximity.
• Plan for a variety of transportation options.
• Set limits and require managed growth patterns with
compact development.
• Encourage development in areas with existing
infrastructure.
Mechanisms for
Implementing Land-Use Plans
 Establish State / Regional Planning Agencies
• This pattern is more effective than local agencies because
political boundaries seldom reflect the geological and
biological database used in planning.
• A regional approach is more likely to prevent duplication of
facilities and lead to greater efficiency.
 Purchase Land or Use Rights
• In many cases, owner may not be willing to sell the land
but is willing to limit future uses of the land.
Mechanisms for
Implementing Land-Use Plans
 Regulate Use
• Zoning is a land-use regulation that restricts the uses to
which land in a region can be put.
– Often, planners making zoning decisions represent
business or developing interests.
Mechanisms for
Implementing Land-Use Plans
Zoning
Special Urban Planning Issues
 Urban Transportation Planning
• Urban transportation planning usually involves four goals:
– Conserve energy and land resources.
– Provide efficient and inexpensive transportation, particularly
to those who are unable to drive.
– Provide efficient transportation opportunities to suburban
residents.
– Reduce urban pollution.
Special Urban Planning Issues
 Mass transit in the U.S. is often underfunded and
difficult to establish because:
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It is only economical along heavily populated routes.
It is less convenient than the automobile.
It is extremely expensive to build / operate.
It is often crowded and uncomfortable.
 The U.S. government encourages personal autos
by financing highways, maintaining cheap energy
policy, and not funding mass-transit projects
(hidden subsidies).
Special Urban Planning Issues
Decline of mass transportation
Special Urban Planning Issues
 Nearly three-fourths of the North American
population lives in urban areas.
 Until recently, urban parks were considered an
uneconomical use of land.
• Facilities not conveniently located near residential areas
may be infrequently used.
 A new outgrowth of urbanization is the
development of urban nature centers.
Special Urban Planning Issues
 Special efforts must be made to revitalize the inner
city.
 Abandoned industrial and commercial sites remain
vacant because they are expensive to clean up and
renovate.
• Brownfield development matches the degree of cleanup
required to the intended use of the site.
 Another important focus is remodeling abandoned
commercial buildings into shopping centers, cultural
facilities, and high-density housing.
Special Urban Planning Issues
 Smart growth recognizes benefits of growth.
• Advocates emphasize developing “livable” cities and
towns.
• Smart growth recognizes that quality of environment
directly affects quality of life.
Special Urban Planning Issues
 One aspect of smart growth is the building of
“green buildings.”
 Green buildings are built using a standard called
Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design
(LEED).
 The guidelines call for using recycled materials,
ensuring better ventilation in buildings, reducing
water and energy use, and other goals.
Special Urban Planning Issues
 Characteristics of high-performance green
building are:
• Low-water-flow fixtures are installed on faucets.
• Buildings’ energy use is tested by an outside expert.
• Products used do not contribute to ozone layer
depletion.
• Occupants have outside views, including natural day
lighting of work surfaces.
Special Urban Planning Issues
 Smart Growth Principles:
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Mix land uses.
Take advantage of compact building designs.
Create range of housing opportunities and choices.
Create walk-able neighborhoods.
Foster distinctive, attractive communities with a strong
sense of place.
Special Urban Planning Issues
• Preserve open space, farmland, natural beauty, and
critical environmental areas.
• Strengthen and direct development of existing areas.
• Provide a variety of transportation choices.
• Make fair, predictable, cost-effective development
decisions.
• Encourage community and stakeholder collaboration in
development decisions.
Federal Government Land-Use Issues
 The Multiple Use Sustained Yield Act of 1960
divided use of national forests into four categories:
– Wildlife habitat preservation
– Recreation
– Lumbering
– Watershed protection
Federal Government Land-Use Issues
 An 1872 mining law allows anyone to prospect for
minerals on public land and establish a claim if
such minerals are discovered.
 The miner is then allowed to purchase the rights to
extract the mineral for $5 per acre.
 Many feel that the law is obsolete, but the law is
still in force and public land is still being sold to
mining interests at ridiculously low prices.
Federal Government Land-Use Issues
 Many people want to use the natural world for
recreational purposes because nature can provide
challenges lacking in day-to-day life.
 Conflicts develop because some activities cannot
occur in the same place at the same time.
 Groups argue that because they pay taxes, they
have a right to use it as they wish.
Federal Government Land-Use Issues
Conflict over recreational use of land
Federal Government Land-Use Issues
U.S. federal recreational lands
Federal Government Land-Use Issues
 Several U.S. agencies, including the National Park
Service, the Bureau of Land Management, the
Forest Service, and the Fish and Wildlife Service,
allocate and regulate the lands they control.
 These agencies have conflicting roles.
 Designation of certain lands as wilderness is a
sensitive issue.
Summary
 Waterways served as transportation corridors that
allowed for the exploration of new land and for the
transport of goods.
 Urban centers began as small towns located near
water.
 Several factors resulted in the shift of the
population from rural to urban.
 Unregulated industrial development in cities led to
degradation of waterfronts and stimulated the
development of suburbs.
 Many problems have resulted from unplanned
growth.
Summary
 Land-use planning involves gathering data,
projecting needs, and developing mechanisms
for implementing the plan.
 Establishing regional planning agencies,
purchasing land or its development rights, and
enacting zoning ordinances are ways to
implement land-use planning.
Summary
 Federal governments own and manage large
amounts of land, so national policy must be
developed.
 Often federal policy is a compromise between
competing uses and land is managed for
multiple uses.