Lecture 2.1
Presenting the data of a research project,
writing strategies .
2.1. How to present the data of your research
project, - and how data are presented in
different disciplines.
2.2. Important points when presenting a research
project, - and how to critically read a research
article.
The different ways of presenting data of a research project
commonly varies greatly from discipline to discipline.
- Between disciplines:
What are the different writing styles within the article on
traditional knowledge and use of natural resources in
Guatemala by Nesheim et al., and the article by Stige et al.
concerning climate and agropastoral production in Africa,
- And among disciplines:
What are the different writing styles between the among
articles and the article by Ortner, or Wilhite et al. 2001?
• Form and structure.
– Length of texts – different scientific traditions in
natural and social sciences.
• Note the different length of the articles in the
compendium.
• Seldom foot-notes in text of natural sciences..
• Take two minutes and think of differences
advantages and disadvantages with long texts versus
short texts!
• Rigid structure versus non rigid structure.
• i.e. do not follow the purpose, methods, results –
discussion structure.
•The structure by headlines in the article by Nesheim et
al., compared to the article by Ortner.
By Nesheim et al.
1.
Introduction
2.
Study area
3.
Methodology
4.
Data analysis
5.
Results
6.
Discussion
7.
Conclusion
By Ortner
1. Geerts, Culture and power
2. Death and orientalism
3. Thick resistance, the cultural
construction of agency
4. Death happens
5. Conclusions: Ironies of
theory
Still, in most written texts
variants of the below points are included.
•Introduction
•Methodology
•Results
•Discussion
•Conclusion
Introduction (and study area)
• Introduce the subject of interest.
• Purpose
– Ex. Peres et al. article “Here we show that patterns of variation in
population size structure are consistent with recruitment bottlenecks
resulting from long-term harvest”.
• The need for the study!
– As an example, the need for the study is clearly stated in the article
by Stige et al. : “We need detailed knowledge about how different
crop and livestock types respond..”.
• Background, situate the frame of the study within the larger
context.
Introduction (and study area)
• Hypothesis / Research questions.
– The hypothesis or the research questions must be
specifically focused.
– Make sure that the questions are answered in the
research article.
• Place of research (study area).
– includes information of the natural environment.
– the history of the area.
– various characteristics concerning the human
population in the area.
– A figure of the study area are often imbedded in
the article.
Background
• Include a more in-depth introduction of the subject
to be discussed.
• It could include historical facts, or other
information of importance for the subject of focus.
• Generally a different headline in the paper.
– Ex.: In Nesheim et al. 2006; “The migrant
community and the study area”, in Wilhite et al.
1996; “Contrasts in background variables”.
Methodology and (statistical analysis).
• Methodology is important for the validity of
the data and the comparability of the data.
•Collect data in a systematic way using an
explicit methodology, to show how we
arrived at our conclusions.
•Plot design and data collection must be
accurately described.
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10 m
100 m
Methodology and (statistical analysis).
• Who and what will be studies?
• How were the informants selected?
• Which variables are measured and what are the units.
• Statistical analysis/analysis of data, often as a
separate under-section.
– how are data coded and categorized
– which analysis is being preformed and how it is being
preformed.
Results/Findings
•Tables and figures may visualize
data in a nice way.
Tables and figures must be
mentioned in the text.
•Tables and figures must be clearly
labeled.
Mean knowledge of women and men
Number of plant species
•The result section should include
own results only, and no elements
of discussion.
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
knowledge of use
knowledge - no use
uncertain knowledge
10
5
0
men
women
The road
skid trails
The logging 4 plot.
felling gaps
Results/Findings
Fig. 1
-”The density of seedlings and high,
e.g. 180 – 230 seedlings – for then to
decline rapidly in the subsequent dbh
classes (fig. 1)”.
Regeneration
classes
Regeneration
classes
of Callophyllum
Calophyllumbrasiliense
brasiliense
200
180
160
Sant a Maria
140
Sant a Maria
120
SM 10- 20
100
SM 20-30
80
SM 30-40
60
Sm 50-60
40
SM 60-70
20
-The climate effects we observe are
strong, and particularly so for
southern Africa, and particularly
so for maize…(Table 1) (Stige
et al. 2006).
0
Reserve 1
Logging 3
Logging 4
Set t lement 5
Table 1.
Region
yr
Am req to
feed 1 mill
people
NW
Reserve 2
Normal
high enso
low enso
High nao
Low nsao
maize
sorgh
millet
rice
nuts
cassava
228
224
255
300
191
752
130
-5
+5
+0
+0
68
+3
+9
-2
-1
9
+0
+1
+0
+0
80
-2
+2
+2
+4
49
+5
+3
-3
+0
0
-
Results
• Don’t use inaccurate interpretation of your findings to
make them agree with the conclusions you’re after.
• Don’t report conclusions that are unsupported by your
actual research
• Don’t cover up results that you don’t like.
• Report your findings accurately and rethink your original
position.
Discussion
• Each paragraph should have four parts, main message,
critical assessment, comparison with other studies and
conclusion.
– The same relates to papers in which the findings and the discussion
is written together.
• Start with the main message answering the question posed
in the introduction, and include the main supporting
evidence.
– Our results imply that African food production may be severely
reduced if the global climate changes toward more El Niño-like
conditions, as most climate models predict (IPC 2001). (Stige et al.
2006).
– The clear message is that current Brazil nut harvesting practices at
many Amazonia forest sites are not sustainable in the long term
(Peres et al. 2003).
Discussion
• All kinds of explanation or forming of questions should be
stated here.
• Discuss similarities and differences between different papers.
– Similar results by other scientists should be used to support your
result.
– Documentation of different results is important to throw light on
differences in f. instance methodology, or simply that the issue is
more complex. Differences could also be used to put focus on a
situation.
• Ex. Nesheim et al. page 121 in the compendium.
• Build up arguments based on findings
– “The process of knowledge transmission have changed form longterm learning to short-term learning and may be part of the reason
why people have changed their resource use and consumption
pattern” Nesheim et al. 2006.
Discussion
• Put in text documentation and source information in
proper form, i.e. remember references..
– A statement should be supported by other research
– A similar finding should be referred for support to your
finding.
• It is allowed to speculate, but be aware of
speculation that is not documented.
Conclusion
• Draw the lines.
• Comments, that is comments on possible
implication and suggestions for further research.
• Don’t report conclusions that are unsupported by
your actual research.
• Don’t introduce new material.
• In most natural science papers, the conclusion is
part of the discussion..