The 1960s were marked by
John F. Kennedy’s New Frontier
and Lyndon B. Johnson’s Great Society
1960: Kennedy (JFK) and Johnson (LBJ)
are the leading
Democratic
Party
candidates
for President
Kennedy (JFK):
43-year-old senator from
Massachusetts
Roman Catholic
Very wealthy family
World War II Navy
hero
Kennedy: the nation
was adrift; promised
to get America moving again
Johnson (LBJ):
Senator from Texas
Majority Leader of the
U. S. Senate—the most
powerful Majority Leader
in over 100 years
Kennedy narrowly wins
the Democratic
nomination at the
convention; selects
Johnson as V. P.
candidate to help win the South
Republicans nominate VicePresident Richard M. Nixon of
California
Kennedy’s Catholic religion:
early campaign issue
Kennedy overcame by
reassuring a meeting of
Protestant ministers in
Houston, TX
“I will make my decisions. . .in the
national interest, and without regard to
outside religious pressure. . .”
The first election of the television
age.
September 26, 1960—first televised
presidential debate in history
Kennedy won
the image
battle—looked
more
“presidential”
A second major event in the
campaign: Dr. Martin Luther King
arrested in Atlanta, GA, sentenced to
4-months in jail.
Eisenhower
administration
does not get involved
Kennedy’s brother &
campaign manager,
Robert Kennedy,
arranges for King to
be released on bail.
Many African-Americans support Kennedy
Kennedy/Johnson defeat
Nixon and Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr.
Kennedy
inaugurated
Jan. 20, 1961.
Challenges
Americans:
“Ask not what
your country
can do for you;
ask what you
can do for your
country.”
Kennedy selects a cabinet of
“the best and brightest.”
Dean Rusk as Secretary of State
Ford Motor Co.
president
Robert
McNamara, as
Secretary of
Defense
Kennedy selects a cabinet of
“the best and brightest.”
Brother, Robert Kennedy,
as Attorney General
Foreign policy:
Truman’s “containment,”
and Eisenhower’s
“massive retaliation,” is
followed by Kennedy’s
“flexible response.”
Camelot
Kennedy brought new energy to
the office of the President
Did things with vigor and energized
the American people
50-mile hikes
Touch football
Glamorous wife Jacqueline
Bouvier “Jackie” Kennedy
brought grace and glamour
as First Lady
Televised White House tour
Camelot
First president to widely use the
television to promote his agenda
Regular press
conferences
showcased the
“Kennedy wit”
Stories of his
young, beautiful
family intrigued
Americans
Kennedy’s Social Programs
The New Frontier—legislative agenda
to “be pioneers” and explore “uncharted
areas of science and space. . .unconquered pockets of ignorance and
prejudice, unanswered questions of
poverty and surplus.”
Congressional coalition of Republicans
and Southern Democrats does not
support Kennedy’s domestic reforms
Kennedy’s Social Programs
To get America moving again,
used deficit spending—spending more
than the government takes in (by
taxes and tariffs)
Lowered taxes giving people more money
to invest and spend
Increased minimum wage to $1.25
Increased defense spending for more
nuclear missiles, nuclear submarines,
and a larger force
Kennedy’s foreign policy included
extending helping hands to
neighbors
Created the Peace Corps, led by
R. Sargent Schriver (Maria’s father and
Kennedy’s brother-in-law)
The Alliance for Progress
offered economic and
technical assistance to
help Latin American
countries improve their
living standards
Camelot ends November 22, 1963
President & Mrs.
Kennedy travel to
Dallas, TX for
political speeches
Around 1:00 p.m.,
Kennedy and Texas
Governor John
Connally are shot.
Connally survives, but Kennedy dies
Johnson is sworn in as the nation’s
36th President aboard Air Force 1
The nation,
and the free
world, are
in shock
All
commercial
TV stops for
three days
Former U. S. Marine, Lee Harvey Oswald,
with ties to the Soviet Union, is arrested
for the murder of Kennedy and Dallas
policeman J. D. Tibbets.
Sunday, November 24, 1963:
Lee Harvey Oswald is shot dead
by Jack Ruby, a Dallas
nightclub owner,
in the basement of the
Dallas Police
Department, live on
national television.
Ruby is later
convicted of murder—
dies in jail. Was
there a conspiracy?
Monday,
November 25,
1963, JFK’s funeral
is attended by the
world’s leaders and
watched on National
television
Later, Johnson appoints
the Warren Commission
to investigate the
assassination.
“Don’t let it be forgot
That once there was a spot
For one great, shining moment
That was known as
Camelot.”
Lyrics by Frederick Lowe
Music by Alan J. Lerner
Camelot
Lyndon B. Johnson
(LBJ) very powerful
politician
“What ever Lyndon really
wants he gets in the end.”
Protégé of Speaker of the
House Sam Rayburn of
Texas.
Elected to Congress 1937—
energetic legislator; caught the
eye of President Roosevelt
Brought many Federal projects to his
district
Elected to the Senate from Texas 1948
Democrats elect him Majority Leader
of the Senate in 1955
Famous for political arm-twisting
technique known as the “Johnson
treatment”
At 6’3”, the quintessential
“Tall Texan”
Spoke with pronounced Texas drawl
Married to Claudia
Taylor “Lady Bird” Johnson
As a Southerner, in a time
of Southern hostility to
civil rights, Johnson
emerged as a champion
of civil rights.
Through LBJ’s
leadership as
president, he pushed
through Congress:
The Civil Rights Act
of 1964
A Federal tax cut of
$11 billion in 1964
Initiated the War on
Poverty with the
Economic Opportunity Act of 1964: Head
Start, VISTA, and the Job Corps
1964, Johnson defeats Republican
Senator Barry M. Goldwater
(AuH20) of Arizona in
a landslide
61% of popular vote;
90% of electoral votes
An ultra-conservative,
Goldwater felt that the
Government should not
promote programs to
overcome poverty and
racial discrimination
May 1964, at the University of
Michigan, Johnson initiates the
phrase The Great Society:
“The Great Society
demands an end to
poverty and racial
injustice.”
Secondary Education Act of 1965: over
$1 billion to help America’s schools
The Great Society
1965: Congress passed legislation
enhancing Social Security with
Medicare (hospital insurance and low
cost medical insurance for Americans
over 65) and Medicaid (health insurance
for welfare recipients)
Passed the Twenty-fourth Amendment
in 1964, ending poll taxes in federal
elections
Passed the Voting Rights Act of 1965—
eliminated literacy tests for voting
The Great Society aided by the
Warren Court
Chief Justice Earl Warren (former
governor of California)
Banned prayer in
public schools
(Engel v. Vitale (1962))
Declared staterequired loyalty oaths
unconstitutional
No president in the post-World
War II era extended the power
and reach of the federal
government more than
Lyndon B. Johnson.
Poverty fell from 25% in
1962 to 11% in 1973
The Great Society did
increase the federal
budget deficit and led
to more conservative
Republicans
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee
Lunch counter
sit-ins in
Greensboro, NC,
Feb. 1960
Founded by Ella Barker
as a student adjunct of
the Southern Christian Leadership Conf.
Kept spirit of resistance alive
1961—Freedom Riders
take bus caravan from
Washington, D. C. to the South
Anniston, Alabama, one bus is firebombed
Other freedom
riders are
attacked by a
white mob and
beaten—police
refuse to
intervene
President John F. Kennedy,
aided by Attorney General
Robert F. Kennedy, sends
400 U. S. marshals to
protect the riders
Robert Kennedy also
issues an order banning
segregation in all
interstate travel
facilities.
September 1962, Air Force
veteran James Meredith
wins federal court case
allowing him to enroll at allwhite University of Mississippi
Mississippi
Governor Ross
Barnett, blocks
entry
President Kennedy orders
federal marshals to escort
Meredith to registrar’s office.
Sep. 30—campus Riots—
5,000 troops needed.
June 11, 1963—Alabama
Governor George Wallace
copies Barnett at the University
of Alabama. Kennedy, again, uses federal
troops
Kennedy addresses nation that evening:
“Are we to say to the world—and much
more importantly, to each other—that this
is the land of the free, except for
Negroes?” Then demands that Congress
pass a sweeping civil rights bill.
In Jackson, MS, shortly after
midnight, June 12, 1963,
a sniper shot and killed NAACP field
secretary Medgar Evers
White supremacist
Byron de la Beckwith
arrested; released
after “hung juries” in
two trials. Finally
convicted 1994
August 28, 1963, more than 250,000
people, including about 75,000 whites,
march on Washington.
Rally at
the Lincoln
Memorial
For three hours,
several speakers
demand immediate
passage of the Civil
Rights Bill
Final speaker is Dr. Martin Luther King,
who gives his now famous “I have a
dream” speech.
On July 2,
1964, based
on the leadership of
President Johnson, who
was the only politician
in the U. S. who could
have persuaded enough
Southern Members of
Congress to vote “Aye!,”
Congress passed the
Civil Rights Act of 1964
Black Power Movement
Stokely Carmichael
member of SNCC
first called for “Black Power”
instilling of racial pride in AfricanAmericans
Black Panthers (Oakland, CA)
Black Panthers (Oakland, CA)
Eldridge Cleaver
Bobby Seale
Huey P. Newton Semi-military lines; wore weapons
openly and proudly—willing to
fight for justice
Black Muslims (Nation of Islam)
Taught Blacks to take responsibility
for their own lives, to be disciplined
to live by strict codes of behavior and to reject
any dependence on Whites
Excellent oratory
skills; insisted
that blacks had
the right to
defend themselves, violently
if necessary
Elijah Muhammad
Malcolm X (Little)
The worst days of the Nuclear Age:
The Cuban Missile Crisis
October 1962
Cuba is 90 miles from Florida.
Fidel Castro becomes
Communist dictator of
Cuba in 1959.
Expels many nonCommunists to the U. S.
After Kennedy becomes President
on January 20, 1961.
He becomes aware of
a plan by Cuban
refugees in the U.S.
to invade Cuba and
oust Castro.
•April 17, 1961, Bay of Pigs
invasion.
•Cuban army defeats invasion.
•Castro fears U. S.-led overthrow.
Castro appeals to Soviet leader
Nikita Khrushchev for help.
Khrushchev has told
the U. S.: “We will
bury you!”
The Soviet military
is concerned that
they are trailing the
United States in
the nuclear arms race.
October 14, 1962, U. S.
reconnaissance aircraft. . .
. . . sight Soviet ballistic missiles in
Cuba.
Kennedy places all U. S. military forces
on full alert and. . . orders a naval
blockade of Cuba.
The world is at the brink of nuclear war.
Kennedy inner circle works
feverishly to devise options to
deal with the crisis.
Brother Robert emerges
as key advisor.
U. N. ambassador
Adlai E. Stevenson
“I’m
prepared
to wait
until hell
freezes over” exchange
with Soviet delegate Zorin
Oct 22, 1962:
Kennedy
addresses the
American people:
any missile attack
from Cuba on the
U. S. or its allies
would trigger
an all-out attack by
the U. S. on the
Soviet Union.
“We have no wish to war with the
Soviet Union, for we are a
peaceful people who desire
to live in peace with all
other peoples. . .The cost
of freedom is always
high, but Americans have
always paid it. And one
path we will never choose,
and that is the path of
surrender, or
submission.”
Finally, Khrushchev orders the missiles
removed.
1961, Khrushchev realizes that
the Soviet System is
in difficulty in Berlin, Germany
In 11 years since the Berlin
Airlift, 3 million East Berliners
had fled to West Berlin
Showed weakness of
Communist government and
seriously weakened economy
August 13, 1961, East German troops
begin construction of the Berlin Wall
The Berlin Wall
Worsened the Cold War tensions
On June 26, 1963, Kennedy visits Berlin
and makes his now famous “Ich bin ein
Berliner” speech at the Berlin Wall.
1963-1973
U. S. prestige and respect
severely undercut
Reduced ability to protect ourselves
and our allies
American people torn
U. S. failed to win political
objectives
Vietnam a colonial possession of
France for many years.
World War II: Japanese expel French
Vietminh proclaim independence
1946: French return; control
southern half of Vietnam; Vietminh
control northern half
U. S. (President Truman) sends
economic aid to the French
Vietminh oppose French in south
as guerillas
Military
field commander:
Vo Nguyen Giap
Battle of Dien Bien Phu
in 1954—French
expelled
The Geneva Accords divided Vietnam
along the 17th Parallel
Decided by
France, Great
Britain, the U. S.,
China, the USSR,
Laos, Cambodia,
the Vietminh, &
South Vietnam’s
anti-Communists
North Vietnam:
Ho Chi Minh
Communist
Capital: Hanoi
South Vietnam:
Ngo Dinh Diem
Ngo Ninh Nhu
Catholic in Buddhist
Country; backed by USA Capital: Saigon
The U. S. supports the South
Vietnamese government with
economic aid.
1950: Truman supported
the French: $15 million
Eisenhower &
Kennedy provide
economic aid
and military
advisers.
Eisenhower’s Advisors
promote Domino Theory
1960: John F. Kennedy
elected President of
the United States;
agrees with
Domino Theory
Kennedy sends
3,000 military
advisors
Vietminh become the National
Liberation Front, also known as
the Vietcong.
1958—Ho regime funds the Vietcong
to start a War of
National Liberation
against the Diem
Regime in the south.
Insurgency fought
by guerillas
Arms/supplies smuggled
from N to S via Ho Chi Minh Trail
Diem regime has much opposition
Catholic minority leading Buddhist
majority
Buddhist
opposition—
1962-63
monks burn
selves to
death.
Diem regime in many ways worse
than Viet Cong.
Revolution summer
1963—Diem and
Nhu executed.
Kennedy supported
the revolt; did not
want Diem executed
Diem followed by a series of
corrupt leaders
November 22, 1963,
Kennedy is assassinated;
V.P. Lyndon B. Johnson
becomes President
Johnson’s focus was
a better life for Blacks and poor
Americans. Wanted nothing to
do with Vietnam.
Summer 1964, two
U. S. destroyers
conducting electronic eavesdropping
are allegedly attacked by North
Vietnamese gunboats in the
Gulf of Tonkin.
At Johnson’s urging, Congress
passes the Gulf of Tonkin
Resolution on 7 August 1964—U. S.
becomes actively involved in Vietnam
War.
Feb 1965—
Johnson
unleashes
Operation
Rolling Thunder:
sustained
bombing of
North Vietnam
Secret bombing plan he had had on
the “drawing board” for months—
waiting for right opportunity to launch
A different type of war
Vietcong—farmers in day;
guerillas at night
Who is the enemy?
Very patient people willing
to accept many casualties
U.S. grossly underestimated the
Vietnamese people, their resolve,
and their resourcefulness
A different type of war
Jungle fighting—U.S.
trained for European war
New jungle-friendly
weapons—M-16 rifle
Defoliants Agent Orange
Napalm
Special
Massive bombing of North Forces
American atrocities:
My Lai (March 16, 1968)
First U. S. commander:
William C. Westmoreland
Search and destroy
missions
Strategic hamlets
Ia Drang Valley
Campaign—1965
(We Were Soldiers)
1965: 50,000 Americans 1967:
500,000 Americans
American Morale Begins To Dip
Disproportionate representation of
poor people and minorities
Several racial
problems
Major drug
problem
(Fire Base
Maryann)
Many
soldiers
affected by
news of
anti-war
protests
and actions
of activist
celebrities
such as
Jane Fonda
(Hanoi
Jane)
American Morale Begins To Dip
Officers: in the “bush” 6 months;
in the “rear” 6 months. Enlisted:
12 months in the “bush”
If you served and survived, you went
home—no incentive to fight hard
Often resulted in “fragging”
U. S. moderately successful 19641967—televised “body counts”
always favored the U. S.
Key event: Tet Offensive
Jan-March 1968
Nightly news in U.S.
Important U.S. military
victory but huge
political defeat
Many student protests
in U. S.
March 1968, Johnson announces
will not run for re-election
With J. William Fulbright
1968
M. L. King assassination
Bobby Kennedy
assassination
Democratic National Convention
Yippies riot in the streets of Chicago
Democratic National Convention
With Bobby Kennedy dead, the
Democrats must choose between
Eugene McCarthy, George McGovern
and Vice President Hubert Humphrey. The
Convention chooses Humphrey
November 1968, Richard M. Nixon
defeats Humphrey —says will seek
peace with honor
•Increases bombing
of North
•Invades Cambodia
•New wave of
student protests
Nixon appoints General Creighton
Abrams as the commander of U. S.
forces in Vietnam
Tactics better;
morale rises;
U. S. becomes more
successful once
again.
May 4, 1970—4 students shot dead,
9 wounded at Kent State U. (Ohio)
Congress and the American people
begin to turn against war
U.S. enters into Paris Peace Accords
Lead U. S.
negotiator:
Dr. Henry A.
Kissinger—later
would serve as
Secretary of State
U. S. and North Vietnam argue for
5 months over shape of table
1973—U.S. and North Vietnam sign
peace treaty
Dr. Kissinger
and North
Vietnamese
negotiator:
Le Duc Tho
U. S. pulls out of Vietnam in 1973
April 1975: North Vietnamese
conquer South Vietnam and unite
both Vietnams under a Communist
government
U.S.: 57,000 killed; 154,000 wounded
Longest war in U. S. history
“If we have to fight,
we will fight. You
will kill ten of our
men and we will kill
one of yours, and in the
end it will be you who tires
of it.” Ho Chi Minh
Lyndon B. Johnson
Political career undone by
Vietnam; withdraws from
presidential race March
31, 1968
1968
January 31: Tet Offensive begins
Feb: Eugene McCarthy defeats Johnson
in New Hampshire Democratic primary
March 31: Johnson withdraws from the race
April 4: Martin Luther King assassinated
Major riots in U. S. cities
June 6: Bobby Kennedy assassinated
August: Democratic national convention
November: Nixon elected president
The Silent Majority
Vice President Spiro T. Agnew
with President Nixon
Students for a Democratic Society
The Weather
Underground
Univ. of Michigan
Disillusionment with society
Determination to build new politics
Student radicalism
U. C. Berkeley and the Free Speech Movement
Rights of students to engage in
political activism on campus
Led by Mario Savio
U. C. Berkeley and the Free Speech Movement
Nation-wide attention
¾ of students strike
U. C. Berkeley and the Free Speech Movement
1969: People’s Park
The Anti-War Movement
Burning draft card
Peace marches and teach-ins
The Anti-War Movement
Jimmy Carter and amnesty to draft-dodgers
angered many Americans and served to draw
the nation further apart
The Counterculture
“Hippies” shared
some beliefs of
the New Left
Belief that U. S.
society had grown
hallow because of
materialism,
technology, & war
Key leader of
Counterculture:
Dr. Timothy Leary
“Tune in,
Turn on,
Drop
Out”
The Counterculture
The capital of the counterculture:
San Francisco’s Haight-Ashbury
District The Summer of Love (1967)
The Counterculture
Major drug problem in 1969-1970
1970, musicians Janis Joplin
and Jimi Hendrix
died of
drug
overdoses
Most important pop artist of
the counterculture: Andy Warhol
Colorful silkscreens
Key Event of Counterculture
Period:
Rock Concert at Woodstock, NY, in
August 1969
Native Americans
As a group, Native Americans have
been the poorest of Americans and
have suffered from the highest
unemployment rate
More likely than any
other group to suffer
serious health
problems such as
alcoholism or
tuberculosis
1960s-1970s, Native Americans
wanted greater opportunity
to control and govern their lives
1961: Declaration of Indian Purpose
67 tribes
President Johnson
established the National
Council on Indian
Opportunity
But, progress of reform slow
1968: American Indian
Movement (AIM) established
Militant Native American
Rights Movement
November 1969:
seized vacant
Alcatraz Island
in San Francisco
Bay
Most violent demonstration:
200 Sioux at Wounded Knee, SD 1973
Site of Native American massacre
by U. S. Cavalry in 1890
Sioux seized town;
took 11 hostages
Negotiations with
FBI for 10 weeks
Ended in shootout:
1 Native American
killed; 1 wounded
The 1960s was a time of great
change in all aspects of
American society
Latinos
1960s—U.S. Latino population:
3 million to >9 million
Puerto Ricans
1 million since 1960
600,000 in New
York City
1959-1980s: hundreds of
thousands of Cubans fled Castro’s
Communist Cuba
Many settled in
Florida
Miami: a boom town
Mariel Boat Lift of
1980
Many other
immigrants from El Salvador, Guatemala,
Nicaragua and Colombia
Largest group of Latino
immigrants from Mexico
Largest immigration has been since
World War II
1960s: many Latinos encountered
ethnic prejudice and discrimination
in jobs and housing
Most lived in segregated barrios
Jobless rate nearly 50% higher
than whites
Percentage of Latino people living
in poverty: 50% higher than whites
As Latino population in the U.S. grew,
so did their cries for greater
representation & better treatment
The Farm Worker
Movement
Long work days,
difficult labor,
very low wages,
no union,
disgusting housing
Cesar Chavez. . .
. . .believed that
the only way to
improve conditions
for farm workers
was to unionize
them
1962, Chavez and Dolores Huerta
. . . establish the National
Farm Workers Association
1965: California grape
growers refuse to
recognize the union
Chavez launched a nationwide boycott of the
companies’ grapes
Promoted change through
peaceful protests (Huelga)
•Mar.-Apr. 1966—march from Delano
to Sacramento
•Feb.-Mar. 1968—25 day fast.
•Bobby Kennedy: “one
of the heroic
figures of our time.”
1970: the grape growers
sign contracts with the United
Farm Workers Organizing Committee
Guaranteed higher wages and
more benefits to farm workers
in California’s Central Valley
“The boycott of grapes was the
most near-perfect of nonviolent
struggles.”
The Brown Power Movement
The work of Chavez in California
inspired Hispanic groups throughout
the U.S.
1968—Congress passed the
Bilingual Education Act—money
for schools to develop bilingual
and cultural heritage programs
for non-English-speaking children
The Brown Power Movement
Young Mexicans began calling
themselves Chicanos or Chicanas—
shortened form of Mexicanos,
expressing pride in heritage
David Sanchez and Carlos Montes
begin the Brown Berets—
a community action group
that organized school
walkouts to demand
programs to reduce
Chicano school dropout rate
Political organization
Mexican American Political Organization
(MAPA)
Sponsored candidates, registered
and educated voters, lobbied for
legislation that benefited Latinos
Edward Roybal
(Los Angeles, 1962)
Henry Gonzalez
(Texas, 1961)
Elected to Congress
Political organization
1970, Texan Jose Angel Gutierrez
Established La Raza Unida
(The United People Party)
Latino candidates in
five states and won
positions on school
boards and city
councils and some
positions of city mayor
The Women’s Movement
1960s on, key to women’s movement:
belief that women should have
economic, political, and social
equality with men
Feminism
1950: 1 of 3 women worked for wages
1960: 40% of women worked for wages
Widespread wage and job
discrimination
The Women’s Movement
Key leader: Betty Friedan
1963: Wrote
The Feminine
Mystique:
captured the
discontent
many women
felt
Died February 4, 2006
The Women’s Movement
1966: The National Organization for
Women (NOW) formed to more
actively pursue women’s goals
Members pushed for creation of
more child-care facilities and for
improved educational opportunities
for women
1971, Gloria Steinem
founded the National
Women’s Political Caucus:
encouraged women to seek
political office
The Women’s Movement
Key issue supported by NOW and other
feminist groups: woman’s right to
have an abortion
1973: Burger Court: Roe v. Wade–
women had right to choose abortion
during first 3 months of pregnancy
Roe v. Wade still bitterly debated
1972: Equal Rights Amendment
passed Congress but did not achieve
ratification of 38 states (3/4 of 50)
The Women’s Movement
Conservative women spoke out
against NOW and the Equal Rights
Amendment
Phyllis Schlafly led the
Stop-ERA campaign
Insisted that the ERA
was the work of
radical feminists who
“hate men, marriage,
and children.”
Since the decision of the
Marshall Court in
Marbury v. Madison
(1803) Supreme Courts
have made thousands
of decisions. Some of
them, however, have
been so important, that
they are considered
landmark—or very
important--decisions. In
this short class we shall
discuss some of those
landmark decisions.
Good evening
Columbians. I was
Chief Justice Earl
Warren. Our first case
was a multi-amendment
case (with emphasis on
the First Amendment)
that my court, the
Warren Court, decided:
Griswold v. Connecticut
(1965).
A Connecticut law criminalized counseling
married couples about or giving married
couples medical treatment for the purposes
of preventing conception of a child.
Griswold v. Connecticut (1965)
Issue: Does the Constitution protect the
right of marital privacy against state
restrictions on a couple’s ability to be
counseled in the use of contraceptives?
The Court held: together the First, Third,
Fourth and Ninth Amendments create the
right to privacy among married people.
The Connecticut law was therefore
unconstitutional and rendered null and
void.
Yet another case that the Warren
Court, decided, similar in many
respects to Griswold v.
Connecticut (1965) was Loving v.
Virginia (1967.)
In 1958 a Virginia law was in
effect that banned interracial
marriages. Two residents of
Virginia, Mildred Jeter, an
African-American woman and
Richard Loving, a white male,
were married in Washington, D. C., and
shortly after returned to Virginia. They were
charged with violating the Virginia law, found
guilty and sentenced each to a year in jail.
Loving v. Virginia (1967)
Issue: Did Virginia’s antimiscegenation law
violate the Equal Protection Clause of the
Fourteenth Amendment?
In a unanimous decision, the Court held: that
distinctions drawn according to race were
generally “odious to a free people” and were
subject to “the most rigid scrutiny” under the
Equal Protection Clause. The Virginia law had
no legitimate purpose “independent of
invidious racial discrimination.” The Court
further rejected Virginia’s argument that the
statute was legitimate because it applied
equally to blacks and whites.
Columbians, I was Chief
Justice Warren Burger. We
will now discuss one of my
Court’s landmark decisions
in a case regarding the
Fourteenth Amendment:
Roe v. Wade (1973)
Norma McCorvey (Roe), a Texas resident,
sought to terminate her pregnancy by abortion,
because the pregnancy was the result of rape.
Texas law prohibited abortions except to save a
pregnant woman’s life. Roe sued claiming
that the Texas law violated the Fourteenth
Amendment.
Roe v. Wade (1973)
Issue: Does the Constitution embrace a
woman’s right to terminate her pregnancy
by abortion?
The Burger Court held: a woman’s right
to an abortion fell within the right to
privacy (Griswold v. Connecticut--1965)
protected by the Fourteenth Amendment.
The decision gave a woman total
autonomy over her pregnancy during the
first trimester.
Now we are going to
discuss 4 cases that
primarily pertain to the
rights of the accused in
criminal cases. The first
case is Mapp v. Ohio
(1961)
While searching her home for a fugitive,
Ohio police discovered obscene materials
in Dolree Mapp’s possession. The police
admitted that the search of the home for
the fugitive violated the Fourth
Amendment. Still, Mapp was convicted of
possessing obscene materials.
Mapp v. Ohio (1961)
Issues:
1) Were the confiscated materials
protected by the First Amendment?
2) May evidence obtained in a search
that violated the Fourth Amendment
be used in a state court?
The Court held: all evidence obtained through
illegal searches and seizures is inadmissible in
state court. This decision created the
exclusionary rule, placing on all levels of
government the requirement of excluding
illegally obtained evidence from all criminal
court proceedings.
Our next case concerns
the Sixth and Fourteenth
Amendments; specifically
the right to counsel:
Gideon v.
Wainwright (1963)
Gideon was arrested in Florida and
charged with felony breaking and entering. He lacked funds to hire a lawyer and
requested a court-appointed lawyer. The
judge refused; Gideon defended himself,
was convicted, and sentenced to 5 years
in state prison.
Gideon v. Wainwright (1963)
Issue: Do the Sixth and Fourteenth
Amendments guarantee a right to legal
counsel in all cases?
The court held: Gideon had a right to
be represented by a court-appointed
attorney. Overruled Betts v. Brady (1942).
Justice Black: “an obvious truth” that a
fair trial for a poor defendant requires a
competent legal
counsel. “Lawyers
are a necessity, not
a luxury.”
Another landmark decision
dealing with the right of an
accused person to an
attorney was the 1964
decision, Escobedo v.
Illinois.
Escobedo was arrested in connection with
a murder and, during interrogation at a
local police station, the police denied him
access to his attorney. Without his lawyer
present, he confessed to firing the shot
that killed the victim and, based on that
confession, was convicted.
Escobedo v. Illinois (1964)
Issue: Is an accused person entitled to
have an attorney present during
questioning.?
The Warren Court held: based on the
“exclusionary rule” from Mapp v. Ohio (1961),
the police obtained Escobedo’s confession in
an illegal manner. His conviction was
overturned. The Court also created the
Escobedo Rule: based on the Sixth
Amendment, police must warn an accused of
the rights to remain silent and to have an
attorney present during questioning.
Columbians, Elle here. Our
next case is one of the most
famous in American history.
It involves the Fifth
Amendment: Miranda v.
Arizona (1966)
Miranda was arrested in Arizona and
the police questioned him without
advising him of his constitutional rights
under the Fifth Amendment (selfincrimination.) He confessed to part of
the crime. His confession was used in
court and he was convicted, based, in
part, on his confession.
Miranda v. Arizona (1966)
Issue: Did the police practice of
interrogating individuals without
advising them of their right to counsel
and protection against self-incrimination
violate the Fifth Amendment?
The Court held: Prosecutors could not use
statements in court that had been made by
defendants unless police had advised them
of their privilege against self-incrimination.
The Court also specifically outlined what
police warnings to suspects must include
(right to remain silent, right to counsel
present during questioning, etc.)
In 1896 the
Court ruled, in
I was Justice Thurgood
Marshall. When I was an
attorney, I argued, and
won, the single most
important Supreme Court
case regarding civil
rights: Brown v. Board of
Plessy v. Ferguson, Education of Topeka, KS
that Blacks could be
(1954).
placed in separate
facilities if they were
“equal” to those used
by whites. School
districts therefore
created separate “but equal” schools
Brown v. Board of Education (1954)
An African-American girl named Linda
Brown lived near an all-white school in
Topeka, KS. To get to her all-black school,
she had to cross several dangerous roads
and railroads. Her father, Oliver Brown,
filed suit to overturn Plessy v. Ferguson to
enable Linda Brown to attend the all-white
school near her home.
Issue: Did the
“separate but equal”
provision of Plessy v.
Ferguson violate the equal protection clause of
the Fourteenth Amendment?
Brown v. Board of Education (1954)
The Warren Court held: Plessy
v. Ferguson’s “separate but
equal rule” was a violation of the
Fourteenth Amendment. Racial
segregation in public education
“has a detrimental effect on
minority children because it is
interpreted as a sign of inferiority.”
Result: beginning of the end of all forms
of state-maintained racial segregation.
The other landmark case
from the Burger Court we will
discuss had to do with
“reverse discrimination”
under the affirmative action
issue: Regents of the
University of California v.
Bakke (1978)
Allan Bakke, 35 year old Caucasian, had
twice been rejected for admission to the
UC Davis medical school. The school
reserved 16 places in each entering class
for “qualified minorities” as part . . .
Regents of the University of
California v. Bakke (1978)
. . .of the university’s affirmative action
program, in an effort to “redress longstanding, unfair minority exclusions from
the medical profession.” Bakke’s college
GPA and MCAT scores exceeded those of
any of the minority applicants who had
been admitted ahead of him. Bakke
claimed that he was excluded from
admission solely on the purpose of race;
or “reverse discrimination.”
Regents of the University of
California v. Bakke (1978)
Issue: Did UC violate the Fourteenth
Amendment’s equal protection clause,
and the Civil Rights Act of 1964, by
practicing an affirmative action policy?
The Burger Court could arrive at no
single majority opinion. The Court
ordered the UC Davis Medical School to
admit Bakke. However, the Court also
ruled that “the use of race as a criterion
in admissions decisions in higher education was constitutionally permissible.”
In 2003, my court made
a similar ruling in Gratz
v. Bollinger.
Jennifer Gratz applied to the University of
Michigan’s College of Literature, Science
and Arts with an adjusted GPA of 3.8 and
an ACT score of 25 (about 1300 SAT). The
University of Michigan admitted using race
in making admissions decisions—its policy
is to admit virtually all qualified applicants
who are black, Latino or Native American.
Gratz v. Bollinger (2003)
Issue: Did the University of Michigan’s
use of racial preferences in undergraduate
admissions violate the Equal Protection
clause of the Fourteenth Amendment or
the Civil Rights Act of 1964?
The Rehnquist Court held that the
University’s policy did violate both laws. In
the Bakke decision the Court took into
account the fact that the University of
California provided individualized consideration to Bakke. The Univ. of Michigan
did NOT do so because each minority
applicant received an automatic 20-points.
Gratz v. Bollinger (2003)
Despite ruling against the
University of Michigan’s
admissions policy, our
Court did, however,
confirm that affirmative
action plans in university
admissions are legal and
valid under the
Constitution.
Nixon visits China
Highlights in U. S. Foreign Policy
Détente (relaxation of cold relations)
1972-early 1980s
Under Richard Nixon, the office of the
President of the United States began to
look imperial, or supreme
Since Franklin Roosevelt, the
president began to get more
and more power, even though
Congress would NOT let him
pack the Supreme Court
Truman integrated the
military by executive order
Johnson went over Congress’s
head to put more troops into
Vietnam
Nixon impounded, or refused
to spend, money appropriated
by Congress for certain
programs with which he
disagreed
Nixon expanded the power
of the presidency and gave
little thought to the checks
and balances of the
Constitution
Nixon distanced himself from Congress
and basically worked with a very small
group of fiercely loyal advisers.
Who were those guys?
Attorney General John N. Mitchell
Chief of Staff
H. R. “Bob” Haldeman
Domestic Affairs
adviser
John D. Ehrlichman
The “Berlin Wall”
1972: reasonably
popular, Nixon
chooses to run for
re-election
Democratic opponent,
extreme liberal Senator
George McGovern from
South
Dakota
Never a serious challenge
But Nixon had an overwhelming fear
of losing elections
Loss to Kennedy in 1960
Loss to Pat Brown in the
1962 election for
governor of California
“The press won’t have
Nixon to kick around
any longer.”
Committee to Re-elect the President (CRP)
hired “the plumbers”—people whose job it
was to plug government leaks to the media.
June 17, 1972, 2:30 a.m., a guard at
the Watergate Complex in Washington,
caught 5 men breaking
D. C.
into the offices of the
Democratic National
Headquarters
They were “plumbers”
Intent: to wiretap
phones and photograph
documents
Quickly learned that the group’s leader, James
McCord, was a CIA agent and a member of CRP
The Cover-up
All incriminating documents shredded
in Haldeman’s White House office
The White House, with Nixon’s
consent, asked the CIA to ask the
FBI to stop its investigation of the
burglary on grounds of national
security
the CRP
On Mitchell’s orders,
gave the burglars
$500,000
to buy their silence
after they
were indicted.
As the 1972 election campaign went on,
most Americans
lost interest in
the Watergate
burglary.
However,
Washington Post
reporters Carl
Bernstein and
Bob Woodward (shown with publisher Katherine
Graham) kept the story alive, trying to find
evidence of a conspiracy.
In November 1972, Nixon decisively
defeated McGovern, amassing 60.7% of
the popular vote and a 520-17 margin in
electoral votes
Inaugurated
on January
20, 1973
January 1973, all of the burglars
were convicted. Judge John Sirica
stated that he believed from the
evidence presented that the
burglars had not worked alone.
April 30, 1973, Nixon fired
White House lawyer John Dean
and announced
the
resignations
of Haldeman
and
Ehrlichman.
Nixon also denied any
attempt at a cover-up.
May 1973, the
Senate convened a
special committee
to investigate the
Watergate burglary
Chairman: Senator
Sam Ervin (D, NC)
Ranking Republican:
Senator Howard
Baker of TN
Testimony from numerous witnesses
June, 1973: John Dean
testified that the
president had been
deeply involved in the
cover-up
John Mitchell refuted
Dean’s charges in
his testimony
There was no “smoking
gun”
July 1973: presidential aide, Alexander
Butterfield testified that
President Nixon taped
(audio tape) all of his Oval
Office conversations
For over a year, there was
a legal battle over releasing
the tapes
Special Prosecutor Archibald
Cox took the president to
Court in October 1973 to get
the tapes.
Nixon ordered Attorney General
Elliot Richardson to fire Cox.
Richardson refused and
resigned, as did the Deputy
Attorney General
The incident became known
as the Saturday Night Massacre
Democrats in the House of
Representatives then began
to look into the possibility of
starting impeachment hearings
Many Democrats did not want to
impeach Nixon because they feared
that if he left office, the pugnacious
Vice President Spiro T. Agnew would become
president
However, within days, Vice
President Agnew resigned
when he admitted to
accepting bribes from
Maryland engineering firms
while governor of Maryland
and while vice president
Democrats began to seriously
consider impeaching Nixon
Nixon named, and the Senate approved,
Representative Gerald R. Ford of Michigan
as the new vice-president
News reports then
announced that in 1971
and 1972, Nixon had only
paid $1000 income tax
on his $200,000 salary
Nixon went on national TV:
“People have the right to know whether or not
their president is a crook. Well, I am not a
crook.”
March 1974, a grand jury indicted
Mitchell, Haldeman, Ehrlichman, and four
other presidential aides on charges of
conspiracy, obstruction of justice, and
perjury
April 30, 1974, Nixon released 1,254
pages of edited transcripts from his
White House tapes
Revealed Nixon’s vulgar
language and lack of
concern about fully
addressing the scandal
Also revealed lengthy gaps
in the tapes. Investigators demanded full
transcripts
Nixon refused, citing national security
concerns
The Burger Supreme Court ruled
unanimously that Nixon had to surrender
the tapes. Nixon released them on Aug 5.
The House Judiciary Committee approved
3 articles of impeachment
The tape, despite an 18-minute gap,
revealed that Nixon knew about the
administration’s role in the Watergate
break-in and had agreed with the
plan to obstruct the FBI’s investigation.
August 8, 1974, after consulting with
his family and the Reverend
Billy Graham
President
Nixon went
on national
TV to
announce
his resignation
Left office at
noon on
Aug. 9, 1974
Aug. 9: addressed his
staff for the final time
Boarded the helicopter
as he left the White
House
Gerald R. Ford became the
38th President of the U.S.
at noon, August. 9, 1974
Nixon: only president to
ever resign from office
Ford: only appointed
president in U.S. history
Gerald R. Ford
Only president to have been
an all-American athlete;
Univ. of Michigan
One month after taking office,
pardoned Richard Nixon
angering many people
Faced a worsening
economy
Gasoline and heating
oil prices extremely
high
Two assassination attempts
Sept 5, 1975:
Lynette “Squeaky” Fromme
Sacramento
Sept 25, 1975
Sara Jane Moore
San Francisco
Named Nelson Rockefeller as
nation’s second appointed
vice-president
Former governor of
New York and heir to
the Rockefeller
fortune
Ford and Democraticcontrolled Congress could not agree on how
to stop inflation
Ford vetoed 50 bills in 2 years as president
Unemployment and inflation dropped—but
no apparent long-term solutions
Foreign policy:
key advisor, Secretary of
State, Dr. Henry A. Kissinger
Ford continued
Nixon’s policy
of improving
relations with
China and the
Soviet Union
1974 & 1975
summits with
Soviet leader
Leonid I. Brezhnev
One achievement: Helsinki Accords
(Helsinki, Finland),
35 nations promised better
cooperation between the nations
of Eastern and Western Europe
1975: Mayaguez Incident
Communist Khmer
Rouge government of
Cambodia seized the
U.S. merchant ship,
SS Mayaguez in the Gulf
of Siam
1975: Mayaguez Incident
Ford ordered two air strikes against
Cambodia and sent Marines to rescue
the 39 crew members
Successful mission
with the loss of 41
U. S. Marines
1976 Election
Ford challenged in primaries by former
California governor, Ronald W. Reagan
Reagan some success, but Ford gets
Republican nomination.
Rockefeller chose not to run for VP
Ford chooses Senator Bob Dole of Kansas
as his running mate
Several Democrats run, but former Georgia
governor and peanut farmer, Jimmy Carter,
gets the nomination
Carter
Plains, Georgia
Graduate of
U. S. Naval Academy
Relative unknown
Carter ran
as an
outsider
(outside
Washington, DC)
Promised to restore
integrity to presidency
Selects Minnesota Senator Walter Mondale
as vice-presidential candidate
Campaign included televised debate—Carter
came across as not strong on economic
issues but also as a nice, moral person
Carter won a close election
Wanted to be known as the people’s president
Roosevelt-like “fireside chats” on radio & TV
Alienated himself from Congress—even the
Democratic Party in Congress
Focused on energy and
economic problems of U.S.
Considered economic crisis
greatest crisis facing nation
April 17, 1977—urged
Americans to cut consumption
of oil and gas
Winter: 65 degrees day; 55 degrees night
Created cabinet-level Dept. of Energy
National Energy Act of 1977
Tax on gas-guzzling cars
Removed price controls on
oil & natural gas produced
in the U. S.
Tax credits for development
of alternative energy supplies
Major problems in economy as well
Voluntary wage & price freezes to slow
inflation
Convinced Federal Reserve to raise interest
rates
Many Americans believed Carter
had no economic policy at all
Malaise Speech: “A crisis of
confidence” has “struck at the
very heart and soul of our
national will.”
Many believed that Carter had given up
1980: inflation at 14%--highest since 1947
Standard of living in U.S. slipped from 1st
to 5th in the world
Approval rating: 26%; lower than Nixon’s low
The U. S. economy of the late 1970s
Rapid expansion of service sector
Communications, transportation and
retail trade
Decline in manufacturing
One major cause: overseas competition
Deteriorating industries created a
“Rustbelt”
Detroit to New
York City
Foreign Policy
Rejected realpolitik (policy of
negotiating with powerful
nations in spite of their
behavior)
Committed to assuring human
rights throughout the world
Foreign policy based on
moral principles—world-wide
assurance of principles of Declaration
of Independence
Many critical of this policy as naïve and
closed-minded
1977: completed treaty with Panama
giving the canal to Panama on Dec. 31,1999
Many Americans criticized this decision
Firm insistence on human
rights led to breakdown in
relations with the Soviet Union
June 1979—signed a SALT II
agreement with the USSR;
criticized by many in Congress
as a treaty that would put the
U.S. at a nuclear disadvantage
Limited numbers of nuclear
weapons and nuclear
missile launchers each
side could
produce
December 1979 the Soviet Union invaded
Afghanistan
Carter called the invasion a “gross interference
in the internal affairs of Afghanistan”
Carter allowed SALT II to die in the Senate
Carter also ordered the U. S. Olympic
Team to boycott the 1980 Moscow Games
Camp David Accords
Carter helped negotiate peace between
Egypt and Israel after 13 days of intense
negotiations at Camp David, Maryland
Anwar Sadat of
Egypt and Menachem
Begin of Israel
Egypt: first Arab
nation to recognize
existence of Israel
Left question of Palestinians open-ended
Carter promised billions of dollars in U. S.
foreign aid to both nations
Low Ebb of Carter Foreign Policy
January 1979, Iranian religious leader,
Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini
led an overthrow of the proU. S. Shah of Iran
Carter supported the shah to the end
After the shah had escaped into exile, in
October 1979, Carter let the shah into the
U.S. for cancer treatment
November 4, 1979
armed students
seized the U. S.
embassy in Tehran
and took 52 hostages
Demanded the U.S.
send the shah back
to Iran in exchange
for hostages
Carter refused
Carter banned
all trade with
Iran and also
broke off
diplomatic
relations with
that country
The Iranian students held the U. S. hostages
for 444 days
One bright spot: 1980 Winter Olympics
Feb.
1980
Eric Heiden: 5
gold medals in
speed skating
USA Ice Hockey
Team defeats
“unbeatable”
Soviet team in
Semi-finals
but then…
The Miracle on Ice restores American morale
April 24, 1980, an attempt by U. S. special
Operating forces, including Delta Force, to
rescue the hostages met with disaster at a
refueling point in the Iranian desert (Desert
One.)
An Air Force C130 aircraft and a
Marine helicopter
collided during
ground refueling
Eight service
people died
in the attempt
As the 1980 election campaign began,
Carter refused to leave the White House
until the hostages were returned;
would not campaign
Result: former
California
Governor,
Ronald Reagan
swept to
victory in the
election
As Reagan inaugurated,
Iran released hostages
The Environment
1962 Rachel Carson’s Silent
Spring
Aroused widespread public
concern about use of insecticides
Nuclear power concerns
1979: accident at Three Mile Island, PA
1986 disaster in
Chernobyl, the Ukraine
(world’s
worst
nuclear
accident)
The Environment
Oil spills and improperly disposed toxic
waste
Santa Barbara oil spill 1969
Love Canal (Niagara Falls, NY) 1978—
toxic waste disposal problems
Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska, 1989
Depletion of ozone layer due to burning
fossil fuels (coal & oil)
Exxon Valdez Oil Spill
Conservatism reached a high
point in the U.S with the
election of Ronald Reagan
in 1980
Former movie actor and
Governor of California
Vice President: George
H. W. Bush
Reagan led the Conservative
Coalition
Alliance of intellectuals, business
leaders, middle-class voters, disaffected
Democrats, and fundamentalist Christian
groups
Favored
Lower taxes and a return to traditional
moral standards
Opposed
Big government, entitlements, affirmative
action, busing, the Equal Rights
Amendment
Rise of conservative religious
groups: The Moral Majority
Leaders
Jimmy
Jim
Pat
Swaggart Robertson
Bakker
Fundamentalist Christianity—using television
and other forms of mass communication
Jerry Falwell
Key campaign phrase: “Are you better off
today than you were 4 years ago?”
Elected in landslide: 43.9 million votes to
35.5 million for Carter; 489-49 electoral
votes
Taking office, promised to reduce size and
influence of federal government, which, he
said, would encourage private investment
“The scariest words in the English language
are: ‘I’m from the government and I’m here
to help.’”
Deep cuts in government
spending on social programs
Did not cut middle-class entitlement
programs—guaranteed and provided
benefits to particular groups: Social Security
for retired people or military pensions
Did cut: food
stamps, job
training,
welfare
benefits, free
school lunches
Reaganomics
Lower taxes to
accompany reduced
spending on social
programs. People
who pay less tax will
invest more, which, in
turn, would increase
the nation’s supply of
goods & services
Based on the theory of supply-side
economics—cutting taxes gives people
the incentives to work, save and invest
Supply-side economics,
(continued)
With lower taxes, people invest more
Increased business investment creates more
jobs, as entrepreneurs and other suppliers
develop new products and services. More
workers means more taxpayers, which
causes government revenues to increase,
even though tax rates are low.
1981—Reagan signed into law
a 25% cut in federal income
taxes, spread out over
three years
With cuts in social programs,
Reagan authorized increases
in military spending
Defense Department budget doubled
1981-1984
Military pay increased
B-1 bomber
1983—proposed the Strategic
Defense Initiative
(“Star Wars”)—anti-ballistic missile defense
Opposed by
some because
of cost and
questionable
technological
basis
Offered to share technology with USSR
Under Reaganomics, interest
rates fell and the stock
market soared producing a long period
of economic growth
Inflation rate: 14% 1980; 4% 1988
But large budget deficits and a huge
national debt: $900 billion in 1980 to
$4 trillion 1992—U.S. the world’s
largest debtor nation
Overall: by 1984, most Americans felt that
they were better off than they had been
in 1980
Supreme Court: became more
conservative under Reagan
Appointed the first female justice,
Sandra Day O’Connor of Arizona
Also appointed conservatives
Antonin Scalia and Anthony
Kennedy and elevated
conservative William Rehnquist
to Chief Justice when Warren
Burger retired
George Bush continued
Reagan’s policy of appointing
conservatives to the Supreme Court with
David Souter
and
Clarence
Thomas
The Rehnquist Court made rulings
restricting abortion rights, imposing new
restrictions on civil rights, and limiting the
rights of people who are arrested
Republicans swept to victory
in presidential elections of
1984 and 1988
1984: Reagan and Bush win decisively over
Democrats Walter Mondale and Geraldine
Ferraro—the first woman ever to be the
candidate of a major party for vice
president
1988: Bush and Dan Quayle,
a senator from Indiana
defeat Massachusetts
Governor Michael
Dukakis (Pres) and
Senator Lloyd Bentsen
of Texas (V.P.)
Reagan/Bush foreign policy
Soviet Union: The Evil Empire
The Berlin Wall fell in 1989
“Mr.
Gorbachev,
tear down
this wall!”
Reagan’s
policies led
to the end
of the USSR
and freedom
in Eastern
Europe
Reagan supported antiCommunist contra rebels
in Nicaragua
Operation
Urgent Fury
Reagan ordered U. S. Rangers
and paratroopers to remove
Cuban troops and eliminate
the Communist government on
the Caribbean island of Grenada in 1983
Iran-Contra Scandal
Illegally sell arms
to Iran, an enemy,
use the proceeds
to illegally fund
pro-American Contra rebels in Nicaragua, then
led by a Communist regime
Devised by National Security
Advisor, Bud McFarlane;
carried out by Marine Lieutenant
Colonel Oliver North
Scandal had no long-term negative affect on
Reagan: the “Teflon President”
June 1989, Chinese people
protest in a pro-democracy
movement
Beijing’s Tiananmen Square
Crushed by government;
restored hard-line communists
to power—Bush protests but
takes no action
South Africa, 1990
U. S. trade embargo to
protest policy of
apartheid—system for
separating races to
protect white supremacy
Over time, government
of South Africa gradually
repealed apartheid laws;
Blacks first voted 1994;
Nelson Mandela first
black president
1989: Bush sent 20,000
military personnel to Panama
to overthrow and arrest
dictator Manuel Antonio
Noriega on charges of
drug trafficking.
Operation
Just Cause
highly
successful
American
operation led
by General
Max Thurmond
Noriega
currently
serving 40
years in a U.S.
prison
August 1990: Iraq invades
oil-rich Kuwait
Military leaders:
General Colin
Powell and
General
H. Norman
Schwarzkopf
U. S. responds with
Operations Desert
Shield and Desert Storm
Operation
Desert Storm
Jan 16, 1991Feb 28, 1991
Air war: Jan
16-Feb 24;
Ground war:
Feb 24-Feb 28
Decisive U.S.-led coalition
victory—less than 400 UN
coalition casualties; more than
100,000 Iraqi deaths (military & civilian)
Validated U. S. military as most powerful in
the history of the world
Bush’s domestic policy not
nearly as successful as
foreign policy
Huge national debt and federal deficit
Democratic majority in Congress
Some cooperation
Plan to bail out savings and loan
industry
Civil rights bill—combat discrimination
in jobs
Americans with Disabilities Act
But . . .
Read my lips: no new
taxes!
Congressional democrats forced
Bush to agree to a tax increase to
reduce the deficit; later painted
him as going back on a promise
Also: economic recession slowly increased
in 1991-1992, leading to the election of 1992
1992, Democratic candidate for
president: Governor Bill Clinton
of Arkansas: “It’s the economy,
stupid.”
The election of 1992
Bush (Republican), Clinton (Democratic),
H. Ross Perot of Texas (Independent)
Results
New V. P. : Senator
Al Gore of TN
Clinton presidency: early
policies and troubles
Gays in the military (Don’t ask, don’t tell)
Large tax increase on wealthy Americans
Significant reduction of government
spending
Health care reform
Led by wife, Hillary Rodham Clinton
Dismal failure—Congress
abandoned
Ratified North American Free
Trade Agreement (NAFTA) &
General Agreement on Tariffs
and Trade (GATT)
Clinton Foreign Policy
Helped broker an agreement
between Israel & Palestine
Liberation Organization (PLO)
Intervened in civil war in Haiti
Brokered the Dayton
Accords for peace in
Bosnia-Herzegovina
and sent U.S. troops
as peacekeepers
Congressional Election of 1994
People dissatisfied with Clinton’s
leadership due to several judgmental errors
Led by Congressman Newt Gingrich of GA,
Republicans offer the Contract
With America, & sweep to victory
taking control of both houses
of Congress
Even Dem. Speaker of the
House Tom Foley of WA
defeated
GOP: more power to the
states; cut taxes &
federal spending
Clinton shifts agenda to political
center, proposed own plan for
tax cuts and balanced budget
Clinton helped by major
improvement in the economy
Regained popularity among
American people
Election of 1996: Clinton & Gore
sweep to victory over Republicans Bob
Dole of KS and Jack Kemp of NY
Results
Clinton & Republican Congress:
smallest budget deficit in almost
30 years
Clinton presidency marred by scandal
Whitewater—land deal prior to election
Vincent Foster suicide (Clinton
aide)
Jennifer Flowers
Paula Corbin Jones
Monica Lewinsky
Clinton lied under
oath; encouraged
Lewinsky to do same
The Clinton scandals
illustrated two major
changes in the character of
American life:
Increasing role of scandal in U. S.
politics (sensationalist media)
Blurring of distinction between public and
private behavior—almost every facet of a
politician’s life a target of inquiry and
exposure
Media knew JFK had many
sexual liaisons, but said
nothing. Today, everything
is fair game.
High tech economy: computers & soft ware
Bill Gates and Microsoft
Silicon Valley
Biotechnology industries
New drugs (scourge of AIDS)
DNA research
Cloning of animal and human tissue
Economy now based on two family
members earning incomes
Two-tiered economy: top 40% of population
increasing wealth and income; bottom 60%
experiencing real declines in wealth and
income
Most important change: globalization of
the economy
Greater choices for consumer but many
jobs sent overseas
North American Free Trade Agreement
General Agreement on Tariffs & Trade
(World Trade Organization)
George W. Bush & Dick Cheney
Al Gore and Joe Lieberman
of CT
Florida vote
count
contested
Results