Skull
Thoracic cage
(ribs and
sternum)
Vertebral
column
Sacrum
Ch. 7
The Skeleton
(a) Anterior view
Cranium
Facial bones
Clavicle
Scapula
Sternum
Rib
Humerus
Vertebra
Radius
Ulna
Carpals
Phalanges
Metacarpals
Femur
Patella
Tibia
Fibula
Tarsals
Metatarsals
Phalanges
Figure 7.1a
Skeletal System
• Composed of bones, cartilage, joints, and
ligaments
• Accounts for 20% of body mass
• 30 lbs in a 160 lb person
• Bones – most of skeleton
• Cartilage – isolated areas – nose, parts of ribs,
joints
• Ligaments – connect bones and reinforce joints
• Joints – allow for motility
Axial Skeleton
• 80 bones segregated into 3 major regions
• Skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage
• Forms:
1. Longitudinal axis of body
2. Supports head, neck, and trunk
3. Protects brain, spinal cord, and organs of the
thorax
Skull
•
•
•
•
•
Body’s most complex bone structure
Formed by cranial and facial bones – 22 in all
Cranium – cranial bones
Enclose and protect the brain
Attachment sites for head and neck muscles
Skull
• Facial Bones
1. Form framework of the face
2. Contain cavities for special sense organs –
sight, taste, and smell
3. Provide openings for air and food passage
4. Secure the teeth
5. Anchor facial muscles of expression
Skull
•
•
•
•
Bones
Most are flat bones except for mandible
firmly united by interlocking joints – sutures
Major sutures –
1.
2.
3.
4.
Coronal
Sagittal
Squamous
lambdoid
Bones of cranium (cranial vault)
Coronal
suture
Squamous
suture
Lambdoid
suture
Facial
bones
(a) Cranial and facial divisions of the skull
Figure 7.2a
Skull - Overview
•
•
•
•
•
Lopsided, hallow, bony sphere
Anterior – facial bones
Rest – cranium
Cranium – divided into vault and base
Cranial vault – calvaria – forms superior, lateral,
and posterior aspects
• Cranial base or floor – inferior aspect - internal
bony ridges – anterior, middle, and posterior
cranial fossae
• Brian fits in snuggly
Anterior cranial
fossa
Middle cranial
fossa
Posterior cranial
fossa
(b) Superior view of the cranial fossae
Figure 7.2b
Skull - Overview
• Smaller cavities –
– Middle and inferior ear
– Nasal cavities and orbits
• 85 names openings –
– Formina
– Canals
– Fissures, Etc.
• Passageway for spinal cord, blood vessels, and
cranial nerves (I-XII)
Cranium
• 8 bones
• 1. Frontal Bone – anterior cranium
• Articulates posteriorly with paired parietal bones via –
coronal suture
• Anterior part – vertical squamous part – forehead
• Extends posteriorly forming superior walls of orbits and most
of anterior cranial fossa – supports frontal lobes of the brain
• Subraorbital margin – pierced by supraorbital forman (notch)
which allows artery and nerve to pass to forehead
• Smooth portion between orbits – glabella
• Just inferior – meets nasal bones at frontonasal suture
• Frontal sinuses
Frontal bone
Glablla
Frontonasal suture
Supraorbital foramen
(noch)
Supraorbital margin
(a) Anterior view
Mandibular symphysis
Figure 7.4a
Cranium
2. Parietal Bones
• 2 large bones
• Curved, rectangular bones form most of the
superior and lateral aspects
• Bulk of the cranial vault
• 4 largest sutures where parietal bones articulate
1. Coronal suture – parietal meets frontal
2. Sagittal suture – parietals meets superiorly
3. Lambboid suture – parietal meets occipital
posteriorly
4. Squamous suture – parietal and temporal meet at
lateral aspect
Parietal
bone
Parietal
bone
Figure 7.4a
Cranium
3. Occipital Bone
• Forms most of skulls posterior wall and base
• Articulates anteriorly with paired parietal and
temporal – lambdoid and occipitomastoid
sutures
• Joins sphenoid bone in cranial floor
• Projection – pharyngeal tubercle
Occipital
bone
(a) External anatomy of the right side of the skull
Figure 7.5a
Cranium
3. Occipital Bone
• Internally – forms walls of posterior cranial fossa –
supports cerebellum
• Base – foramen magnum – through which brain
connects with spinal cord
• Flanked laterally by 2 occipital condyles – aciculate
with first vertebrae – permits nodding
• Hypoglossal canal – cranial nerve XII passes
• External occipital protuberance – median protrusion
• Other ridges and crests mark bones
Occipital
bone
(a) External anatomy of the right side of the skull
Figure 7.5a
Cranium
4. Temporal Bones –
• Line inferior to parietal bones and meet them
at squamous sutures
• Form inferolateral aspects of skull and part of
the cranial floor
• Complicated shape – 4 major areas (regions)
• Squamous, mastoid, tympanic, and petrous
Temporal bone
(a) External anatomy of the right side of the skull
Figure 7.5a
Cranium
4. Temporal Bones –
• Squamous Region – abuts squamous suture
• Bar like zygomatic process – meets zygomatic
bones of the face
• Form zygomatic arch – projections of cheek
• Mandibular fossa – receive lower jawbone –
forms temporomandibular joint
External
acoustic
meatus
Mastoid
region
Squamous
region
Zygomatic process
Mastoid
process
Mandibular fossa
Tympanic region
Styloid process
Figure 7.8
Cranium
4. Temporal Bones –
• Tympanic region – surrounds external acoustic
meatus – external ear canal
• Below- needle like styloid process –
attachment for tongue and neck muscles
External
acoustic
meatus
Mastoid
region
Squamous
region
Zygomatic process
Mastoid
process
Mandibular fossa
Tympanic region
Styloid process
Figure 7.8
Cranium
4. Temporal Bones –
• Mastoid Region – mastoid process – anchoring
site for neck muscles
• Stylomastoid foramen – allow cranial nerve VII
to leave skull
• Middle cranial fossa – sphenoid and petrous
• Supports temporal bones of brain
Carinum
4. Temporal Bones –
• Several foramen - jugular vein and cranial
nerves IX, X, XI
• Carotid canal – carotid artery
• Foramen lacerum – closed by cartilage in living
room
• Internal acoustic meatus – cranial nerves VII &
VIII
External
acoustic
meatus
Mastoid
region
Squamous
region
Zygomatic process
Mastoid
process
Mandibular fossa
Tympanic region
Styloid process
Figure 7.8
Cranium
5. Sphenoid Bone – bat shaped
• Spans width of middle cranial fossa
• Central wedge – articulates with all the other
cranial bones
• Central body and 3 pairs of processes
• Greater wings, lesser wings, and pterygoid processes
• With in the body – paired sphenoid sinuses
Optic canal
Greater
wing
Hypophyseal
fossa of
sella turcica
Body of sphenoid
Lesser wing
Superior
orbital fissure
Foramen
rotundum
Foramen
ovale
Foramen
spinosum
(a) Superior view
Figure 7.9a
Body of sphenoid
Greater
wing
Lesser
wing
Superior
orbital
fissure
Pterygoid
process
(b) Posterior view
Figure 7.9b
Cranium
6. Ethmoid Bone – complex shape
• Lies between sphenoid and nasal bones
• Superior surface – cribriform plates
• Crista galli – triangular processes
• Perpendicular plate – part of nasal septum
• Lateral mass – ethmoid sinuses
Olfactory
foramina
Orbital
plate
Crista galli
Cribriform
plate
Left lateral mass
Ethmoidal
air cells
Perpendicular
plate
Middle nasal concha
Figure 7.10
Cranium
7. Sutural Bones –
• Thin irregularly shaped bones with in sutures
• Vary in numbers
• Not in all skulls
• Unknown significance
Sutural
bone
7. Sutural Bones –
• Thin irregularly
shaped bones
with in sutures
• Vary in numbers
• Not in all skulls
• Unknown
significance
Figure 7.4b
Facial Bones
•
•
•
•
14 bones
Only mandible and vomer unpaired
Men – more elongated than women
Women – rounder and less angular
Facial Bones - Mandible
•
•
•
•
Lower jawbone
Longest and strongest
Forms chin
2 upright rami – meet body posterior at
mandibular angle
• Top groove – notch
• Body – anchors lower teeth
– Alveolar margin – contains sockets where teeth are
embedded
Temporomandibular
joint
Mandibular notch
Mandibular
condyle
Mandibular fossa
of temporal bone
Coronoid
process
Mandibular foramen
Ramus
of
mandible
Alveolar
margin
Mental
foramen
Mandibular
angle
Body of mandible
(a) Mandible, right lateral view
Figure 7.11a
Facial Bones – Maxillary Bones
•
•
•
•
Maxillae
Fused medially
Form upper jaw and central portion of face
Upper teeth – alveolar margins
Articulates with
frontal bone
Frontal process
Orbital
surface
Zygomatic
process
(cut)
Infraorbital
foramen
Anterior nasal
spine
Alveolar
margin
(b) Maxilla, right lateral view
Figure 7.11b
Zygomatic bone
Irregularly
shaped
Cheek bone
and part of
inferolateral
margins of
orbits
(a) Anterior view
Figure 7.4a
Facial Bones – Nasal Bones
• Thin, rectangular, bridge of nose
• Attach to cartilage of external nose
Facial Bones – Nasal
Bones
Nasal bone
Thin, rectangular, bridge of
nose
Attach to cartilage of
external nose
Figure 7.5a
Facial Bones – Lacrimal Bones
Lacrimal bone
Delicate, fingernail
shaped
Contribute to
medial walls of
each orbit
Deep grove –
lacrimal fossa –
allows tears to
drain
(a) Anterior view
Figure 7.4a
Facial Bones – Palatine Bones
• 2 bony plates – horizontal and perpendicular
• 3 processes – pyramidal, sphenoidal, and
orbital
• Horizontal plate – hard palate
• Perpendicular – walls of nasal cavity and small
part of orbits
Maxilla
(palatine process)
Hard
Palatine bone
palate
(horizontal plate)
Incisive fossa
Intermaxillary suture
Median palatine suture
Infraorbital foramen
Maxilla
Sphenoid bone
(greater wing)
(a) Inferior view of the skull (mandible removed)
Figure 7.6a
Maxilla
(palatine process)
Hard
Palatine bone
palate
(horizontal plate)
Incisive fossa
Intermaxillary suture
Median palatine suture
Infraorbital foramen
Maxilla
Sphenoid bone
(greater wing)
Vomer
• Slender,
plow
shaped
• In nasal
cavity and
small part
of orbit
(a) Inferior view of the skull (mandible removed)
Figure 7.6a
Inferior Nasal Conchae
Inferior nasal
concha
Nasal bone
Thin, curved bones in nasal cavity
Wall of nasal cavity
Figure 7.14a
Hyoid Bone
• Not really part of
skull
• U shaped
• Inferior to mandible
in anterior neck
• Does not articulate
directly with any
other bone
• Horseshoe shaped
The Vertebral Column
• Spine or spinal column
• 26 irregular bones connected in a flexible
curved shape
• Skull  pelvis
• Infant – 33 bones
• Adult – 9 fuse  24 bones
C1
Cervical curvature
(concave)
7 vertebrae, C1–C7
Spinous
process
Transverse
processes
Thoracic
curvature
(convex)
12 vertebrae,
T1–T12
Intervertebral
discs
Intervertebral
foramen
Lumbar curvature
(concave)
5 vertebrae, L1–L5
Sacral curvature
(convex)
5 fused vertebrae
sacrum
Anterior view
Coccyx
4 fused vertebrae
Right lateral view
Figure 7.16
The Vertebral Column
• Regions –
• ~ 70 cm long (28 inches)
• 5 major regions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Cervical region (7)
Thoracic region (12)
Lumbar region (5)
Sacrum
coccyx
The Vertebral Column
• Curvatures • cervical and lumbar curvatures – concave
posteriorly
• Thoracic and sacral – convex posteriorly
C1
Cervical curvature
(concave)
7 vertebrae, C1–C7
Spinous
process
Transverse
processes
Thoracic
curvature
(convex)
12 vertebrae,
T1–T12
Intervertebral
discs
Intervertebral
foramen
Lumbar curvature
(concave)
5 vertebrae, L1–L5
Sacral curvature
(convex)
5 fused vertebrae
sacrum
Anterior view
Coccyx
4 fused vertebrae
Right lateral view
Figure 7.16
Abnormal Spinal Curvatures
• some present at birth
• Others disease, poor posture, unequal muscle pull
1. Scoliosis – “twisted disease” abnormal lateral curvature
in the thoracic region
– Treated with braces or surgically
2. Kyphosis – hunchback
– Dorsally exaggerate thoracic curvature
– Common in elderly or from tuberculosis of spine, rickets,
or osteomalacia
3. Lordosis – swayback, accentuated lumbar curvature
– Spinal tuberculosis or osteomalacia
– Common in people with large belles, pregnant women
Ligaments
• Elaborate system of cable like supports
• Strap like ligaments
• Major – anterior and posterior longitudinal
ligaments
• Run down back and front surfaces of
vertebrae
• Posterior – prevents hyperextension
Intervertebral Discs
• Cushion like pad
• 2 parts – inner gelatinous nucleus pulposus –
rubber ball – gives elasticity and
compressibility
• Surrounded by – anucleus fibrosus – limits
expansion when spine is compressed
• Woven strap
• Withstands twisting and tension
Vertebral spinous process
(posterior aspect of vertebra)
Spinal cord
Spinal nerve root
Transverse
process
Herniated portion
of disc
Anulus fibrosus
of disc
Nucleus
pulposus
of disc
(c) Superior view of a herniated intervertebral disc
Figure 7.17c
Supraspinous ligament
Transverse process
Sectioned
spinous process
Ligamentum flavum
Interspinous
ligament
Intervertebral
disc
Anterior
longitudinal
ligament
Intervertebral foramen
Posterior longitudinal
ligament
Anulus fibrosus
Nucleus pulposus
Inferior articular process
Sectioned body
of vertebra
Median section of three vertebrae, illustrating the composition
of the discs and the ligaments
Figure 7.17a
Intervertebral Discs
•
•
•
•
•
•
Shock absorbers
Allow to spine to bend and flex
Thickest in lumbar region
25 % of the height of the column
Flatten during day – slightly shorter at night
Sudden trauma – herniated disc – rupture of
anulus fibrosus and protrusion of nucleus
pulposus
• Treatment – heat, massage, exercise.
• If not must remove protruding disc and fuse
vertebrae
Structure of Vertebral Column
• Vertebrae – body (centrum) and vertebral arch
• Enclose opening – vertebral foramen
• Successive vertebrae – vertebral canal = spinal
cord
• Vertebrae arch – pedicles and laminae
• Pedicles – bony pillars on inside of arch
• Laminae – flattened plates
• Processes from arch – spinous process, transverse
process, superior and inferior articular arches
Regional Characteristics
• Variation among groups
• Allow different functions and movements
• General movements –
1. Flexion and extension – straightening of spine
2. Lateral flexion – upper band right or left
3. Rotation – rotation on long axis of spine
Lamina
Transverse
process
Posterior
Spinous
process
Superior
articular
process
and
facet
Pedicle
Anterior
Vertebral
arch
Vertebral
foramen
Body
(centrum)
Figure 7.18
Cervical Vertebrae (7)
• C1 C7
• Smallest, lightest
• Typical – C3  C7
1. Body is oval
2. Except C7 – spinous process is short, projects
directly back and bifid – split at top
3. Vertebrae foramens large and generally
triangular
4. Transverse process contains transverse foramen
Table 7.2
Cervical Vertebrae (7)
• C7 – not bifid
– Larger than others
– Process visible through skin
– Landmark for counting vertebrae – vertebra
prominens
• 1st two – atlas and axis
– More robust
– No intervertebral disc
– Highly modified
Dens of axis
Transverse ligament
of atlas
C1 (atlas)
C2 (axis)
C3
Inferior articular
process
Bifid spinous
process
Transverse processes
C7 (vertebra
prominens)
(a) Cervical vertebrae
Figure 7.20a
Cervical Vertebrae (7)
• C1 – atlas – no body
– No spinous processes
– Ring of bone
– “carries” the skull
– Allow to nod yes
• C2 – axis – not as specialized
– Dens – “tooth” projecting from body superiorly
– Pivot for rotation
– Allow head to shake no
C1
Posterior
Lateral
masses
Posterior
Posterior
tubercle
Posterior arch
Anterior
Anterior arch
tubercle
(a) Superior view of atlas (C1)
Transverse
foramen
Superior
articular
facet
Posterior arch
Transverse
process
Lateral
masses
Posterior
tubercle
Inferior
articular
facet
Transverse
Anterior
foramen
arch
Facet for dens
Anterior tubercle
(b) Inferior view of atlas (C1)
Figure 7.19a-b
Posterior
C2
Inferior
articular
process
Spinous process
Lamina
Pedicle
Transverse
process
Superior
articular
facet
Dens
Body
(c) Superior view of axis (C2)
Figure 7.19c
Thoracic Vertebrae (12)
•
•
•
•
T1  T12
First – like C7
Last 4 – progression towards lumbar
Increase in size
Thoracic Vertebrae (12)
• Characteristics –
1. Body – heart shaped
-2 small faucets – demi facets – receive heads of ribs
2. Vertebral foramen is circular
3. Spinosous process – long and points downward
4. Except T11 and T12 – transverse costal faucets
articulate with ribs
5. Faucets in frontal plane – prevent flexion and extension
-Allows to rotate – restricted by ribs
Table 7.2
Transverse
process
Superior articular
process
Transverse
costal facet (for
tubercle of rib)
Intervertebral
disc
Body
Spinous
process
Inferior costal
facet (for head
of rib)
Inferior articular
process
(b) Thoracic vertebrae
Figure 7.20b
Lumbar Vertebrae (5)
•
•
•
•
•
L1  L5
Small of back
Receives the most stress
Sturdier structure
Bodies massive and kidney shaped
Lumbar Vertebrae (5)
1. Pedicles and laminae – shorter and thicker
2. Spinous process – short, flat, hatchet shaped
– project downward
3. Vertebrae foramen – triangular
4. Orientation of facets differs – modification
lock vertebrae together and provide stability
– flexion/extension possible
Table 7.2
Superior
articular
process
Transverse
process
Body
Intervertebral
disc
Inferior
articular
process
Spinous
process
(c) Lumbar vertebrae
Figure 7.20c
Sacrum
•
•
•
•
•
•
Triangular shaped
Shapes posterior wall of the pelvis
S1 S5 – five fused vertebrae
Auricular surfaces and sarcoiliac joints
Sacral promontory – bulges into pelvic cavity
4 ridges – transverse ridges
Sacral promontory
Ala
Body of
first
sacral
vertebra
Transverse
ridges (sites
of vertebral
fusion)
Apex
Anterior
sacral
foramina
Coccyx
(a) Anterior view
Figure 7.21a
Ala
Sacral
canal
Body
Facet of
superior
articular
process
Auricular
surface
Median
sacral
crest
Lateral
sacral
crest
Posterior
sacral
foramina
Coccyx
Sacral
hiatus
(b) Posterior view
Figure 7.21b
Coccyx
•
•
•
•
Tailbone
Small triangular bone
4 (sometimes 3) vertebrae fused together
Nearly useless bone
Thoracic Cage
• Chest and bony underlying
• Thoracic vertebrae, ribs, sternum, and costal
cartilages
• Protective cage around vital organs (heart,
lung, etc.)
• Supports girdles and upper limbs
Jugular notch
Clavicular notch
Manubrium
Sternal angle
Body
Xiphisternal
joint
Xiphoid
process
True
ribs
(1–7)
False
ribs
(8–12)
Sternum
Intercostal spaces
Costal cartilage
Costal margin
L1
Vertebra
Floating ribs (11, 12)
(a) Skeleton of the thoracic cage, anterior view
Figure 7.22a
Sternum
•
•
•
•
Breast bone
Lies in anterior midline
Flat, ~15 cm long
Fusion of 3 bones – manubrium, body, xiphoid
process
• 3 anatomical landmarks – jugular notch,
sternal angle, xiphisternal joint
Jugular notch
Clavicular notch
Manubrium
Sternal angle
Body
Xiphisternal
joint
Xiphoid
process
True
ribs
(1–7)
False
ribs
(8–12)
Sternum
Intercostal spaces
Costal cartilage
Costal margin
L1
Vertebra
Floating ribs (11, 12)
(a) Skeleton of the thoracic cage, anterior view
Figure 7.22a
Ribs
• 12 pairs
• Attach posteriorly to thoracic vertebrae and curve
internally towards body surface
• 7 superior ribs – attach directly to sternum – true
or vertebrosternal ribs
• 5 remaining – false ribs – attach indirectly or
entirely lack sternum attachment
• Ribs 8 – 10 – vertebrochondrial ribs
• Ribs 11 and 12 – vertebral ribs/floating ribs – no
anterior attachment
Transverse costal facet
(for tubercle of rib)
Angle
of rib
Superior costal facet
(for head of rib)
Body of vertebra
Head of rib
Intervertebral disc
Neck of rib
Tubercle of rib
Shaft Sternum
Crosssection
of rib
Costal groove Costal cartilage
(a) Vertebral and sternal articulations of a
typical true rib
Figure 7.23a
Articular facet
on tubercle of rib
Spinous process
Shaft
Ligaments
Neck of rib
Head of rib
Transverse
costal facet
(for tubercle
of rib)
Body of
thoracic
vertebra
Superior costal facet
(for head of rib)
(b) Superior view of the articulation between a
rib and a thoracic vertebra
Figure 7.23b
Ribs
•
•
•
•
•
•
Increase in length – 1  7
Decrease in length – 8  12
Bowed flat bone
Bulk shaft – transverse process of vertebrae
Head, neck, and tubercle
1st pair flattened superiorly horizontal table
Appendicular Skeleton
•
•
•
•
•
Bones of limbs and their girdles
Appended to axial skeleton
Pectoral girdles – attach to upper limbs
Pelvic girdles – secure lower limbs
Limbs – same plane – 3 major segments
connected by moveable parts
Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle
• Clavicle and scapula
• Girdle – usually signifies belt like structure –
pectoral does not
• Girdles attach to upper limbs to axial skeleton
and provide attachment points for muscles
• Light and allow motility
1. Only clavicle attaches to axial skeleton – scapula
move freely
2. Socket of shoulder – shallow and poorly
reinforced, does not restrict movement, good
for flexibility, bad for stability
Clavicle - collarbones
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Slender, doublely curved bones
Cone shaped at medial sternal end
Flattened on lateral – acromial end
Anchor muscles
Braces – hold scapula and arms out laterally
Not very strong, likely to shatter
Fracture outward – protect subclavian artery
Sensitive to muscle pull
Larger and stronger in those who perform
manual labor or athletics
Acromioclavicular
joint
Clavicle
Scapula
(a) Articulated pectoral girdle
Figure 7.24a
Sternal (medial)
end
Posterior
Anterior
Acromial (lateral)
end
(b) Right clavicle, superior view
Figure 7.24b
Scapulae
•
•
•
•
Shoulder blades
Thin, triangular flat bones
“spade” or “Shovel”
3 borders – superior shortest, sharpest
– Medial, Vertebral Border – parallel vertebrae
– Lateral or auxiliary, border abuts armpits
•
•
•
•
Shallow fossa – glenoid cavity
Spine – easily felt through skin
Acromion – triangular portion
Acromioclavicular joint – coracoid process – anchors
biceps muscle
Acromion
Suprascapular notch
Superior border
Coracoid
process
Glenoid
cavity
Lateral border
Superior
angle
Subscapular
fossa
Medial border
(a) Right scapula, anterior aspect
Inferior angle
Figure 7.25a
Suprascapular notch
Coracoid process
Superior
angle
Supraspinous
fossa
Spine
Infraspinous
fossa
Acromion
Glenoid
cavity
at lateral
angle
Medial border
Lateral border
(b) Right scapula, posterior aspect
Figure 7.25b
Upper Limb – 30 bones
•
•
•
•
•
Arm – upper limb – shoulder  elbow
Humerous - longest, largest bone of upper limb
Articulates – scapula and radius/ulna
Head fits into glenoid cavity of scapula
Coronoid fossa & olecranon fossa – allow ulna to
move freely
• Radial fossa – head of radius
•
Greater
tubercle
Lesser
tubercle
Intertubercular
sulcus
Head of
humerus
Anatomical
neck
Deltoid
tuberosity
Lateral
supracondylar
ridge
Radial
fossa
Capitulum
(a) Anterior view
Coronoid
fossa
Medial
epicondyle
Trochlea
Figure 7.26a
Forearm
•
•
•
•
2 parallel long bones
Radius and ulna
Articulate with each other
Radioulnar joint – connected by interosseous
membrane
Radial
notch of
the ulna
Head
Neck
Radial
tuberosity
Olecranon
process
Trochlear
notch
Coronoid
process
Proximal
radioulnar
joint
Interosseous
membrane
Ulna
Head of
radius
Neck of
radius
Radius
Ulnar notch
Radius
of the radius
Head of ulna
Styloid
Styloid
process of ulna
process
Distal radioulnar
Styloid process
of radius
joint
of radius
(a) Anterior view
(b) Posterior view
Figure 7.27a-b
Ulna
• Slightly longer than radius forming elbow joint
• 2 processes – olecranon and coronoid 
separated by notch
Olecranon process
Trochlear notch
View
Coronoid process
Radial notch
(c) Proximal portion of ulna,
lateral view
Ulnar notch of radius
Articulation
for lunate
Articulation
for scaphoid
Styloid
process
View
Styloid
Head
of ulna process
(d) Distal ends of the radius and
ulna at the wrist
Figure 7.27c-d
Humerus
Capitulum
Coronoid
fossa
Medial
epicondyle
Trochlea
Coronoid
process of
ulna
Radial notch
Ulna
(c) Anterior view at the elbow region
Head of
radius
Radial
tuberosity
Radius
Humerus
Olecranon
process
Olecranon
fossa
Lateral
epicondyle
Medial
epicondyle
Head
Ulna
Neck
Radius
(d) Posterior view of extended elbow
Figure 7.26c-d
Radius
•
•
•
•
Thin at proximal end – wide distally
Head – shaped like head of nail
Radial tuberosity – anchors biceps molecule
Contributes with wrist joint
- Colle’s Fracture – break in distal end of radius
- Falling person – break their fall
Radial
notch of
the ulna
Head
Neck
Radial
tuberosity
Olecranon
process
Trochlear
notch
Coronoid
process
Proximal
radioulnar
joint
Interosseous
membrane
Ulna
Head of
radius
Neck of
radius
Radius
Ulnar notch
Radius
of the radius
Head of ulna
Styloid
Styloid
process of ulna
process
Distal radioulnar
Styloid process
of radius
joint
of radius
(a) Anterior view
(b) Posterior view
Figure 7.27a-b
Hand
• Wrist – carpus
• Palm – metacarpals
• Phalanges - fingers
Phalanges
• Distal
• Middle
• Proximal
Sesamoid
bones
Carpals
• Trapezium
• Trapezoid
• Scaphoid
Radius
(a) Anterior view of left hand
Metacarpals
• Head
• Shaft
• Base
Carpals
• Hamate
• Capitate
• Pisiform
• Triquetrum
• Lunate
Ulna
Carpals
• Trapezium
• Trapezoid
• Scaphoid
Radius
(b) Posterior view of left hand
Figure 7.28a-b
Carpus (wrist)
• Carpals – 8 marble sized bones
• 2 irregular rows of 4 bones
1. Proximal row – (lateral medial)
- Scaphoid “boat shaped” lunate ‘moonshaped” triguetrum “triangle” pisciform
“pea-shaped”
2. Carpals – distal row
- Trapezium “little table”  trapezoid “4 sided” 
capitate “head-shaped” hamate “hooked”
Phalanges
• Distal
• Middle
• Proximal
Sesamoid
bones
Carpals
• Trapezium
• Trapezoid
• Scaphoid
Radius
(a) Anterior view of left hand
Metacarpals
• Head
• Shaft
• Base
Carpals
• Hamate
• Capitate
• Pisiform
• Triquetrum
• Lunate
Ulna
Carpals
• Trapezium
• Trapezoid
• Scaphoid
Radius
(b) Posterior view of left hand
Figure 7.28a-b
Carpus (wrist)
• Carpal tunnel – overuse and inflammation of
tendons – swell and compress nerves in the
wrist
• Pain is greatest at night
• Carpal tunnel syndrome
Metacarpals (palm)
•
•
•
•
•
•
5 radiate from wrist
Form palm of hand
Not named – numbered 1-5
Bases – articulate with carpals
Heads – articulate with phalanges
Thumb (1) – more anterior position
Phalanges
• Distal
• Middle
• Proximal
Sesamoid
bones
Carpals
• Trapezium
• Trapezoid
• Scaphoid
Radius
(a) Anterior view of left hand
Metacarpals
• Head
• Shaft
• Base
Carpals
• Hamate
• Capitate
• Pisiform
• Triquetrum
• Lunate
Ulna
Carpals
• Trapezium
• Trapezoid
• Scaphoid
Radius
(b) Posterior view of left hand
Figure 7.28a-b
Phalanges (fingers)
•
•
•
•
•
•
Digits, fingers
1 – 5 – thumb number 1
3rd fingers usually longest
14 miniature bones
Distal, middle, and proximal
Thumb – no middle bone
Phalanges
• Distal
• Middle
• Proximal
Sesamoid
bones
Carpals
• Trapezium
• Trapezoid
• Scaphoid
Radius
(a) Anterior view of left hand
Metacarpals
• Head
• Shaft
• Base
Carpals
• Hamate
• Capitate
• Pisiform
• Triquetrum
• Lunate
Ulna
Carpals
• Trapezium
• Trapezoid
• Scaphoid
Radius
(b) Posterior view of left hand
Figure 7.28a-b
Pelvic (Hip) Girdle
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Attaches lower limbs
Transmits full weight of upper body
Supports visceral organs
Sparingly attached to thoracic cage
Secured to axial skeleton by ligaments
Sockets – deep, cuplike
Lacks motility of pectoral girdle
Formed by pair of hip bones – os coxae or coxal bone
3 regions – ilium, ischium, and pubis (adults – bones
fused)
• Point of fusion - anetabulum
Base of sacrum
Iliac fossa
Coxal
bone
llium
(os coxae
or hip
Pubic
bone)
bone
Iliac crest
Sacroiliac
joint
Anterior
superior
iliac spine
Sacral
promontory
Sacrum
Coccyx
Anterior inferior
iliac spine
Pelvic brim
Acetabulum
Pubic tubercle
Pubic crest
Pubic symphysis
Ischium
Pubic arch
PLAY
Animation: Rotatable pelvis
Figure 7.29
Ilium
•
•
•
•
Large, flaring bones
Superior region of coxal bone
Body with wing like portion – ala
Iliac crests – hands on hips
Anterior gluteal
Ilium
line
Ala
Posterior
Iliac crest
gluteal line
Posterior
Anterior
superior
superior
iIiac spine
iliac spine
Posterior inferior
Inferior
iliac spine
gluteal line
Greater sciatic
Anterior inferior
notch
iliac spine
Ischial body
Acetabulum
Ischial spine
Pubic body
Lesser sciatic
notch
Pubis
Ischium
Inferior ramus
Ischial
of pubis
tuberosity
Obturator foramen
Ischial ramus
(a) Lateral view, right hip bone
Figure 7.30a
Ilium
Iliac crest
Iliac fossa
Posterior
superior
iliac spine
Posterior
inferior
iliac spine
Auricular
surface
Greater sciatic notch
Ischial spine
Lesser sciatic notch
Obturator
foramen
Ischium
Anterior
superior
iliac spine
Anterior inferior
Body of
iliac spine
the ilium
Arcuate line
Superior ramus
of pubis
Pubic tubercle
Articular surface
of pubis (at pubic
symphysis)
Ischial ramus
Inferior ramus
of pubis
(b) Medial view, right hip bone
Figure 7.30b
Ischium
•
•
•
•
•
Posteroinferior part of hip bone
Roughly L-shaped or arc shaped
Thicker superior body
Thinner inferior ramus
3 markings
1. Ischial spine – attachment of ligament – sacrospinous
ligament
2. Lesser sciatic notch
3. Ischial tuberosity
Anterior gluteal
Ilium
line
Ala
Posterior
Iliac crest
gluteal line
Posterior
Anterior
superior
superior
iIiac spine
iliac spine
Posterior inferior
Inferior
iliac spine
gluteal line
Greater sciatic
Anterior inferior
notch
iliac spine
Ischial body
Acetabulum
Ischial spine
Pubic body
Lesser sciatic
notch
Pubis
Ischium
Inferior ramus
Ischial
of pubis
tuberosity
Obturator foramen
Ischial ramus
(a) Lateral view, right hip bone
Figure 7.30a
Pubis
• Pubic bone
• Anterior portion of hipbone
• Lies nearly horizontally – urinary bladder lies
on it
• Anterior portion – thickened – pubic crest
• Joined by fibrocartilage – pubis symphsis –
forms pubic arch or subpubic angle
Anterior gluteal
Ilium
line
Ala
Posterior
Iliac crest
gluteal line
Posterior
Anterior
superior
superior
iIiac spine
iliac spine
Posterior inferior
Inferior
iliac spine
gluteal line
Greater sciatic
Anterior inferior
notch
iliac spine
Ischial body
Acetabulum
Ischial spine
Pubic body
Lesser sciatic
notch
Pubis
Ischium
Inferior ramus
Ischial
of pubis
tuberosity
Obturator foramen
Ischial ramus
(a) Lateral view, right hip bone
Figure 7.30a
Male vs. Female
• Female – modified for childbearing – wider, shallow,
lighter, and rounder
• Must be large enough to allow infants head to pass
• False (greater) pelvis and true (lesser) pelvis
1. False bound by alea of ilia – really part of abdomen –
helps support viscera
2. True pelvis – region inferior to brim that is surrounded
by bone – deep bowl containing pelvic organs
- Pelvic inlet – pelvic brim – labor – head enter inlet
first
- Then pelvic outlet
Comparison of Male and Female
Pelves
Characteristic
Female
Male
Bone thickness
Lighter, thinner, and
smoother
Heavier, thicker, and more
prominent markings
Pubic arch/angle
80˚– 90˚
50˚– 60˚
Acetabula
Small; farther apart
Large; closer together
Sacrum
Wider, shorter; sacral
curvature is accentuated
Narrow, longer; sacral
promontory more ventral
Coccyx
More movable; straighter
Less movable; curves ventrally
Lower Limb
• Carry entire weight of body
• Subjected to exceptional force
• Thicker and stronger than upper limbs
Thigh - Femur
•
•
•
•
•
•
Single bone of thigh
Largest, longest, strongest bone in body
Clothed in bulky muscles
Articulates with hip bone and knee
Ball like head, neck, and shaft
Ends in wheel like lateral and medial condyles –
articulate with tibia
• Patella – triangular seasmoid bone – enclosed in
quadriceps – tendon secures thigh muscles to
tibia
Neck
Fovea
capitis
Greater
trochanter
Head
Intertrochanteric
crest
Lesser trochanter
Intertrochanteric
line
Gluteal tuberosity
Linea aspera
Apex
Anterior
Facet for
medial
condyle
of femur
Facet for lateral
condyle of femur
Lateral
condyle
Medial and
lateral supracondylar lines
Surface for
patellar
Posterior
ligament
(a) Patella (kneecap)
Intercondylar fossa
Lateral
epicondyle
Medial condyle
Adductor
tubercle
Medial
epicondyle
Lateral epicondyle
Patellar surface
Anterior view
Posterior view
(b) Femur (thigh bone)
Figure 7.31
Leg
• 2 parallel bones – tibia and fibia
• Connected by interosseous membrane
Lateral condyle
Intercondylar eminence
Head
Medial condyle
Proximal tibiofibular
joint
Tibial tuberosity
Interosseous membrane
Anterior border
Fibula
Tibia
Distal tibiofibular
joint
Articular surface
Lateral malleolus
Medial malleolus
(a) Anterior view
Figure 7.32a
Tibia
• Receives weight of body from femur
• 2nd only to femur in size and strength
Lateral condyle
Intercondylar eminence
Head
Medial condyle
Proximal tibiofibular
joint
Tibial tuberosity
Interosseous membrane
Anterior border
Fibula
Tibia
Distal tibiofibular
joint
Articular surface
Lateral malleolus
Medial malleolus
(a) Anterior view
Figure 7.32a
Fibula
• Stick like bone with slightly expanded ends
Lateral condyle
Intercondylar eminence
Head
Medial condyle
Proximal tibiofibular
joint
Tibial tuberosity
Interosseous membrane
Anterior border
Fibula
Tibia
Distal tibiofibular
joint
Articular surface
Lateral malleolus
Medial malleolus
(a) Anterior view
Figure 7.32a
Foot
• Tarsus, metatarsus, and phalanges
• 2 functions – supports body weight and acts a
lever to propel body forward
Distal
Middle
Proximal
1
Medial
cuneiform
Intermediate
cuneiform
Navicular
Talus
Trochlea
of talus
(a) Superior view
2
3
4
5
Phalanges
Metatarsals
Lateral
cuneiform
Cuboid
Tarsals
Calcaneus
Figure 7.33a
Intermediate
cuneiform
First metatarsal
Talus Facet for
medial
Navicular
malleolus
Sustentaculum tali
(talar shelf)
Calcaneus
Medial
cuneiform
(b) Medial view
PLAY
Calcaneal
tuberosity
Animation: Rotatable bones of the foot
Figure 7.33b
7 bones – tarsals
2 largest – talus
and calcaneous
1
Medial
cuneiform
Intermediate
cuneiform
Navicular
Talus
Trochlea
of talus
(a) Superior view
2
3
4
5
Lateral
cuneiform
Cuboid
Tarsals
Calcaneus
Figure 7.33a
1
2
3
4
5
Metatarsals
5 small bones
1-5, big toe #1
Figure 7.33a
Distal
Middle
Proximal
1
2
3
4
Phalanges
5
14 bones – smaller than
hands
3 on each digit except
great toe (hallux)
Only 2 – proximal and
distal
Figure 7.33a
Arch
• 3 arches – 2 longitudinal – medial and lateral and 1
transverse
• Maintained by bones, ligament, and pull of tendons
• Provide springiness
• Makes running and walking more economical in terms
of energy use
• Medial – well above ground
• Lateral – very low
• Transverse – other way
• Standing immobile – long periods – strain on tendons
and ligaments – flat feet
Medial longitudinal
arch
Transverse arch
Lateral
longitudinal arch
(a) Lateral aspect of right foot
Figure 7.34a