Officer Manning: Armies of the past
•
•
Successful traits:
– Armies with lower ratio (1:33) of officer to enlisted had faster decision cycle
– Policies built around unit manning
– Command and instructor positions most prized, lasting from 3-5 years in
key positions
Unsuccessful traits:
– Armies with higher ratio (1:13 to 1:6) of officer to enlisted had slower
decision cycle at all levels
– Policies were individual centric leading to lower unit success
– Officers were rotated swiftly through many positions on average a new
position every 10.1 months
Insights into personnel systems (cultures) of other armies in history—
objective: develop decisive leaders of character for uncertain and complex problems
Officer Management: Armies of the Past
•
Successful traits:
– Officers attended extensive military schooling early in career
• Most schooling comes at entry level through 4th year
• Courses were intellectually demanding (German staff college so tough that falling
out was not seen as failure)
• Culture encouraged self-teaching, self-policing and professional discourse
– Accessions into officer ranks tough (up to 80% failure rate)
– Promotions and selections
• Based on two measures, seniority and combat performance
– “Perform or out” versus “up or out” promotion system
• Decentralized at lower levels with local boards; senior selections centralized
•
Unsuccessful traits:
–
–
–
–
Officers viewed as generalists where rank meant assumed level of knowledge
Careers adhered to templates and patterns with little flexibility based on competence
Individual replacement rather than group replacement hindered cohesion
Individual career management assumed Social Darwinism, equal opportunity &
progressive assumption of survival of fittest
– Careerism outcome based individual’s psychological “investment” in their own career
coupled with promotion for pay economic reward system
– Incentive structure focused on individual failed to ensure superior group performance
US Army Officer Trends
Officer to Enlisted Ratios
Civil War
Ratio to
Strength Enlisted
Total Army
2,100,000
World War I
Ratio to
Strength Enlisted
4,050,000
World War II
Ratio to
Strength Enlisted
8,800,000
Vietnam/Cold War
Ratio to
Strength Enlisted
1,330,000
Today
Ratio to
Strength Enlisted
1,140,000
Officers
137,254
1: 14.3
250,000
1: 15.2
758,620
1: 10.6
172,727
1: 6.7
180,094
1: 5.3
Field Grade
41,176
1: 47.7
32,926
1: 115.4
42,307
1: 190.1
73,888
1: 15.7
78,082
1: 12.3
564
1: 3480
1,006
1: 3777.3
1,260
1: 6382
542
1: 2135.2
632
1: 1518.8
General
Infantry /
Armor
Force
IN: 3488 1: 12.1
1,606
1: 14.2
6,243
1: 35.3
3,966
1: 20.9
3,510
1: 15.7
HV: 3779 1: 11.3
ST: 4224 1: 11.4
Context: Technology breakthrough, Communication, Area of Operations, Doctrinal Focus,
Operational Environment, Spectrum of Conflict, Army Purpose, Officer Development
US Army Officer Trends
In Foreign Successful Armies
Total Army
Roman Army
(52 AD)
Ratio to
Strength Enlisted
300,000
French Army
(1806)
Ratio to
Strength Enlisted
350,000
Finnish Army
German Army
(1939)
(1940)
Ratio to
Ratio to
Strength Enlisted Strength Enlisted
346,000
4,555,000
Israeli Army
(1967)
Ratio to
Strength Enlisted
264,000
Officers
3,817
1: 77.6
4,215
1: 82
10,380
1: 32.3
133,970
1: 33
15,000
1: 16.6
Field Grade
1,980
1: 149.6
1,867
1: 185.2
2,147
1: 156.3
16,098
1: 274.6
2,358
1: 105.6
34
1: 8711.3
56
1: 5289
423
1: 817.5
56
1: 5993.2
4,561
1: 969.3
36
1: 6916.7
5,000
1: 73.6
2,400
1: 41.9
3,100
1: 82.8
3,300
1: 79.5
2,800
1: 46.5
General
Infantry /
Armor
Force
(Legion)
(Brigade)
(Regiment)
(Reg't/Bde)
(Brigade)
US Army Officer Trends
In Unsuccessful Armies
Prussian Army
(1806)
Strength
Ratio to
Enlisted
French Army
(1940)
Strength
Ratio to
Enlisted
Strength
Ratio to
Enlisted
Strength
Ratio to
Enlisted
182,995
Officers
23,789
1: 6.7
666,600
1: 4
293,400
1: 4.6
177,650
1: 8.1
Field Grade
8,794
1: 18.1
23,498
1: 113.5
67,009
1: 19.9
46,000
1: 31.2
528
1: 301.5
1,843
1: 1446.8
1,101
1: 1214
748
1: 1921.6
Infantry /
Armor
Force
2,800
(Brigade)
1: 18
3,800
(Regiment)
1,630,000
British Army
(1940)
Total Army
General
3,333,000
Italian Army
(1940)
1: 14.4
4,100
(Regiment)
1,615,000
1: 19
2,500
(Brigade)
1: 25
US Army Officer Trends
Context
Criteria
Civil War
World War I
World War II
Cold War / Vietnam
Today
Technology
Breakthrough
Railroad
Rifled Weapons
Machine Gun
Long Range Arty
Airplane as a weapon
Armor
Nuclear Wpn
Helicopter
Tactical Nuclear Wpn
Precision Wpns
Communications
Telegraph
Signal Flags
Courier
Telegraph
Land Line Telephone
Signal Flags / Courier
Wireless (Radio)
Telegraph
Land Line
Early Satellite
Burst Transmission
Wireless (Radio)
Digital Commo
Adv Satellite
Multi Media
Area of Operations
(Reg/BDE Frontage)
300 m
3500 m
4-6 KM
5-9 KM
Area Of Opn
Defined by
Situation
Doctrinal Focus
Sequential
employment of
Arty, IN, CAV
Sequential
employment of
Fires & Maneuver
Combined Arms
Coordinated with
Other Services
& Nations
Combined Arms
Simultaneous Opn
With Other Services
& Nations
Joint Operations
Interagency &
Multinational
Operations
Operational
Environment
Linear Battlefield
Sequential Opns
Expeditionary
Linear Battlefield
Trench Warfare
Opn Stalemate
Global War
Multiple Theaters
Opn Maneuver
Simultaneous Opns
Global Responsibility
Small conflicts
Within Nuclear parity
Non-linear/Simultaneous
Persistent Conflict
Decline nation-state
Rise non-state actors
War among people
Spectrum of
Conflict
Force-on-Force
Mid-Intensity
Force-on-Force
Mid-Intensity
Force-on-Force
Mid & High
Intensity
Conventional/
Unconventional
Low-Mid-High
Intensity
General Purpose &
Special Forces
Hybrid Threats
Full spectrum Opn
Army Purpose
Mobilize
Fight
Demobilize
Mobilize
Fight
Demobilize
Mobilize
Fight
Demobilize
Large Standing
Army Forward Deployed
to Deter Conflict
Expeditionary
Operating Force
Generating Force
Officer
Development
Branch
Branch
Combined Arms
Combined Arms
Joint
Joint, Interagency
Specialized Functional
Expertise
Officer to Enlisted Ratios
Civil War
World War I
World War II
Vietnam/Cold War
Today
2,100,000
4,050,000
8,800,000
1,330,000
1,140,000
Officers
1: 14.3
1: 15.2
1: 10.6
1: 6.7
1: 5.3
Field Grade
1: 47.7
1: 115.4
1: 190.1
1: 15.7
1: 12.3
General
1: 3480
1: 3777.3
1: 6382
1: 2135.2
1: 1518.8
ERA
Total Army
Infantry /
Armor
Force
1: 12.1
1: 14.2
1: 35.3
1: 20.9
1: 15.7
1: 11.3
1: 11.4
US Army Leader Development
Context
Criteria
Civil War
World War I
World War II
Cold War / Vietnam
Today
Technology
Breakthrough
Communications
Area of Operations
(Reg/BDE Frontage)
Leader Doctrinal
Focus
Joint Operations
Top Down, centralized and
Top Down, centralized and
Interagency &
Top Down, centralized Top Down, centralized
hierarchal control C2 system; 1982hierarchal control C2
Multinational
and hierarchal control and hierarchal control
86 FM 100-5 encouraged more
system, later mission cmd
Operations, emphasis toward
C2 system
C2 system
mission cmd, but culture did not
by exception
mission command, but still retains
support
top-down hierarchal system
Operational
Environment/
opponent
Linear Battlefield; Linear Battlefield; Germans
US demonstrated ability to conduct
Linear Battlefield
Germans moved from
projected maneuver
Linear warfare against Soviet threat,
maneuver warfare in OEF and OIF
Sequential Opns; CSA operational to tactical warfare in time, space and but emerging non-state opponents
in initial phase; Rise non-state
used same doctrine maneuver warfare with depth with mission cmd
using non-linear warfare
actors war among people
strusstruppen tactics
and technology
Spectrum of
Conflict
Army Purpose
Officer
Development
United States Military
United States Military Academy,
Academy, private
United States Military
United States Military Academy,
United States Military
ROTC and OCS initially, templated
Military Colleges in
Academy, private military ROTC and OCS initially, templated
Academy, private
school system Lieutenant through
initial phase,
colleges, ROTC, but largely school system Lieutenant through
Military Colleges in
colonel. Learning moving from
OCS/college degree,
OCS w/college degree;
colonel. Learning was inward
initial phase-focused
process to classical education
staff college. Learning staff college Learning was focused on process and driven by
on linear warfare
system focused on cognitive
was inward focused on inward focused on process
top down POI
development
process
Sources for officer/enlisted numbers/ratios
• Center of Military History Research page,
http://www.history.army.mil/index.html
• US Army Human Resources Command, Department of Defense
Military Personnel as of 31 March 2010
• Department of the Army, The Personnel System In The United
States Army, 1954 (covers Civil War through World War II)
• Kreidberg and Henry, History of the Mobilization in the United States
Army, 1775-1945, 1955
• Vandergriff, Donald, Path to Victory: America’s Army and the
Revolution in Human Affairs, 2002
• Access through Army G1, LTC Daniel Shimpton, 5 May 2010
• Dr. Blair Hayworth, US Army Center of Military History
• Dr. Bruce Gudmundsson, Historian USMC TECOM
• LTC Symon Tanner, British Army liaison to ARCIC Forward, 6 May
2010
Back ups
Use an empirical approach to understand
how the U.S. Army’s personnel system
(culture) evolved over time by comparing
to other armies in snapshots of history
Provide brief insights into personnel
systems (cultures) of other armies in
history. Key trend throughout is how to
develop decisive leaders of character
Summary of traits
• Successful armies started officer candidate earlier in age, with most
beginning in the ranks or as an officer candidate 2-4 years
• After 1871, American and Europeans tried to copy the German
system, but many succeeded in copying them organizationally, but
none succeeded at copying them culturally, but their systems lacked
the requisite mutual trust needed to empower subordinates
• France fought well in WWI, adjusted to conditions of trench warfare,
but did not learn how to adapt to changed conditions in the next war
(precursor: decentralized German storm tactics first used in 19161918)
• Excessive politicization undermined mutual trust
– Atmosphere of mistrust and a Cartesian intellectual tradition (emanating from
DeCartes) inspired a centralized officer culture that tried to reduce conflict to a
series of predictable formulaic relations
– Italy had courageous individual qualities smothered by rigid culture leads to
failures without reforms
– Britain excellent at basic soldiering skills with outstanding small unit leadership
by NCOs but officer corps remained wedded to methodical frontal battles of
attrition through WWII
Successful Armies
•
•
•
•
•
The Roman Army of 216 BC to 52 AD
The French Army of 1798-1807
The Finnish Army of 1926-1940
The German Army of 1809-1942’
The Israeli Army of 1948-1973
Common Features: All these armies faced the threat of a crushing defeat at the hands of well armed
numerically superior opponents, and
Officer corps open to wide population, but had high entrance standards with strenuous measurement
tools, which resulted in small percentage of officers to enlisted (entire force from 3-7%); and built
personnel system around unit manning
Unsuccessful Armies
•
•
•
•
The Prussian Army (1806)
The French Army (1870, 1914, 1940)
The Italian Army (1914-1942)
The British Army (Crimea 1856, S. Africa
1898, WWII 1939-1942)
Common Features: Confined their officer corps to an aristocratic or privileged class-limited talent with
entrance and promotion standards based on birth than competence; maintained larger than necessary
officer corps anywhere from 15-20 percent; dogmatic, non-adaptive doctrine when faced with obvious
need to change
Successful Armies
Roman Army 216 BC-52 AD
•
Battle of Cannae in 216 BC forced major reforms. Leadership dominated
Roman thought
– Publius Cornelius Scipio (Africanus after 202 BC) reformed officer corps with
meritorious promotions
– Garius Marius made tactical and structural changes to the legion
•
The entire army revolved around the legion
– It recruited, trained and promoted its own officers based on merit (similar to
regimental system)
– Length of service was 20 years—leaders within the Legion came from the ranks
– Legions were the basic building blocks of armies and were the regional
specialists for operations other than war
•
•
Tactical doctrine demanded that subordinates exhibit initiative
Legion evolved a culture of unit cohesion and professionalism that gave the
Romans an unbeatable Army for almost four centuries until:
–
–
–
Failed to adapt to the fighting methods of Germanic Tribes
Citizens serving diminished, and use of mercenaries and immigrants with no vested interest
to Rome
Involvement of acquisition of its own supplies corrupted the officer corps (particularly at the
furthest, most isolated corners of the empire)
Roman Military History
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Craven, Brian, The Punic Wars, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1980
Crawford, Michael, “Early Rome and Italy, in The Oxford History of the Classical
World, Oxford University Press, 1988
Ferrell, Arther, The Fall of Roman Empire: The Military Explanation, Thames and
Hudson, 1986
Gibbon, Edward, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Random House, Inc.,
1909-1914
Grant, Michael, History of Rome, Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1978
Pareti, Luigi and Brezzi, Paolo and Petech, Luciano, History of Mankind, Cultural and
Scientific Development Vol 2: The Ancient World, Harper and Row Publishers, 1965.
Provides a detailed description of Marius reforms and campaigns
Scullard, H.H., Scipio Africanus: Soldier and Politician, Thames and Hudson, 1970
Van Creveld, Martin, Command in War, Harvard University Press, January 1, 1987
The French Army 1798-1807
•
Nation in Arms concept of mobilizing entire nation’s resources
–
–
–
•
•
Napoleon’s doctrine of the “corps-de-armee” demanded initiative by division
and corps commanders operating over wide fronts
General to Emperor
–
–
•
Allowed the French to choose from a large number of candidates into the officer corps
Moral and physical energy of citizen-soldiers and new leaders generated by the revolution
and magnified by successes against allied armies
Leaders promoted by merit (e.g., Davout)
Napoleon increasingly used top-down control to fight centralized battles (similar to modern
concept of synchronization)
As Emperor, he did not encourage subordinates to operate autonomously (away from his
oversight, e.g., Wagram in 1809, Central Germany campaign of 1813, Waterloo 1815)
Result: The cultural freedoms unleashed by the French Revolution and
Napoleon’s background and genius induced him to,
–
–
As general, promote talent based on battlefield performance (“marshal’s baton in every
knapsack”)
As Emperor, substitute central control & stereotyped tactics based on massed firepower for
talent at all levels below corps (Wagram and beyond)
French Napoleonic History
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Bertaud, J ."Napoleon's Officers", Past and Present, 112 (1986)
Butler, A.R.(trans). The Memoirs of Baron De Marbot: Late Lieutenant in the French Army,
Longmans, Green & Co, London, 1897
Chandler, D. The Campaigns of Napoleon, Macmillian Publishing, London, 1965
Chandler, D. On the Napoleonic Wars, Stackpole Books, London, 1994
Connelly, O. Blundering to Glory: Napoleons Military Campaigns, Scholarly Resources Inc,
Delaware, 1984
Ellis, G. The Napoleonic Empire, Macmillian Press, London, 1991
Elting, J.R. Swords Around a Throne: Napoleon's Grande Armee, Macmillian, London, 1988
Epstein, R.M. "Patterns of Change and Continuity in Nineteenth-Century Warfare.", Journal of
Military History, 56, (July 1992)
Haythornthwaite, P.J. The Naploeonic Source Book, Arms and Armour, London, 1990
Lyons, M. Napoleon Bonaparte And the Legacy of the French Revolution, MacMillan Press,
London, 1994.
Lynn, J "Towards and Army of Honour: The Moral Evolution of the French Army, 1789-1815",
French Historical Studies, 16, (Spring 1989)
Marbot, M.D. Memoirs du General Baron de Marbot, III,Paris, Plon, 1892
Marshall-Cornwall, J. Napoleon As a Military Commander, Clowes and Son Ltd, London, 1965
Morris, W. Napoleon: Warrior and Ruler, Putnam's, London, 1896
Petre, F. Loraine. Napoleon at Bay, Greenhill Books, London, 1994 (first published 1914)
Rothenberg, G. The Art of Warfare in the Age of Napoleon, University of Indiana Press, 1978
Weigley, R.F. The Age of Battles, Pimlico, London, 1991.
The Finnish Army, 1926-1940
•
•
Origin of doctrine and personnel management systems—German Army
Destroyed the numerically superior invading Soviet Army in 1939
–
–
•
•
Commanders & NCOs held leadership and command positions for long
periods of time 3 to 5 years, in some cases even longer
Promotions and selections were decentralized to regimental level
–
•
In one battle an NCO leading a 100 man detachment defeated a Soviet battalion
Strong regimental system (Army composed mainly of “National Guard”)
–
–
•
Based on rigorous testing and performance in training exercises
Extraordinary training of the enlisted ranks, NCOs and officers
–
•
Small unit leaders employed maneuver warfare doctrine within larger framework of
commander’s intent, schwerpunkt and mission orders
The officer corps made up 3% of the force
Swiss model (units from same town, district)
Mobilization plan required reserves to be well trained as small regular army
Results:
–
–
Finns achieved the highest exchange ratio in WWII—10:1 against the Soviets
Standards of Finnish officer and NCO accession process were even higher than the German
system
Finnish Military History
•
•
•
•
•
Condon, Richard, The Winter War: Russia Against Finland (History of 2nd World
War),
Edwards, Robert, The Winter War: Russia's Invasion of Finland, 1939-1940 , Peguin
Books, 1992
Engle, Eloise and Paananen, Lauri, The Winter War: The Soviet Attack on Finland
1939-1940, Stackpole Books (January 1992)
Trotter, William, Frozen Hell: The Russo-Finnish War of 1939-1940, Algonquin Books
, January 2000
Interviews with Dr. Bruce Gudmundsson, Historian, USMC TECOM
German/Prussian Army (1809-1942)
•
Gerhard Scharnhorst (leading Prussian reformer after 1806) believed
Leadership:
–
–
–
Accession to officer corps should be determined by merit not social class (not completely
achieved)
Standards for obtaining a commission should be strenuous (achieved-25% made it)
Officer selections and promotions were decentralized to the regiment and regimental
commander (achieved)
•
•
•
•
Rigorous but fair standards ensured that officers could focus on their
profession
–
•
•
•
Office candidate first served in the regiment as an “ensign”
Candidate required to pass demanding three day examination
Candidate’s character had to be approved by a board of regimental officers
Percentage of officers to force was 3-5%
3-track officer system: General staff, regimental (line) and technical
Education and personnel system focused inward on character development
and the art of war at the tactical and operational levels, but not at the
strategic level of war
Result:
–
–
Institutionalized excellence at the tactical and operational levels of war, great for wars
confined to Europe (victories Danish War of 1864, Austria in 1866 and France 1870)
Weak strategically and disastrous at the grand strategic level of national conflict as
evidenced by WWI and WWII (“made enemies faster than they could kill them”)
German Military History
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Barry, Quintin, The Franco-Prussian War 1870-71: Volume 1: the Campaign of
Sedan: Helmuth Von Moltke and the Overthrow of the Second Empire, Helion &
Company, 2007
Corum, Robert, The Roots of Blitzkrieg: Hans von Seeckt and German Military
Reform, University of Kansas Press, 1992
Horne, Alistor, The Fall of Paris: The Siege and the Commune, 1870-71. Penguin
Books, 1981
Howard, Michael Eliot, The Franco-Prussian War: The German Invasion of France,
1870-1871, Routledge, 2001
Millman, Richard, British Foreign Policy and the Coming of the Franco-Prussian War.
Clarendon Press. 1965
Ollivier, Emile, Translated by George Burnham Ives. The Franco-Prussian War and
Its Hidden Causes, Little, Brown, and Company, 1912
Stone, David, Fighting for the Fatherland: The Story of the German Soldier from
1648 to the Present Day, Conway. 2006
Stone, David, First Reich: Inside the German Army During the War with France,
1870-71, Brassey‘s, 2002
Wawro, Geoffrey, The Franco-Prussian War: The German Conquest of France in
1870-1871, Cambridge University Press, 2003
Werstein, Irving, The Franco-Prussian War: Germany's Rise as a World Power, J.
Messner. 1965
Wetzel, David, A Duel of Giants: Bismarck, Napoleon III, and the Origins of the
The Israeli Army of 1948-1973
•
High initiative, decentralized officer culture evolved out of commando operations of
1948
–
–
•
Up through 1967, most senior tank officers served as commandos in 1948 or earlier
Commando heritage evolved naturally into an effective maneuver warfare doctrine copied from the German
army between 1948 and 1956, reached fruition in 1967 and was sufficiently intact to recover in 1973
Officer accession (up through 1973) focused on battlefield leadership
–
All officers began in enlisted ranks—top soldiers became NCOs and top NCOs became officers
•
–
–
•
–
–
•
Officers emerged from a unit cohesion system that kept crew and squads together from beginning of service
Rigorous selection process limited officer corps to 7-8 percent of the force
Officer assignments prioritized by success and initiative exhibited in combat
operations
–
•
NCO Squad leaders course considered one of the toughest in the world
Priorities by initiative: highest to fighter pilots, then paratroopers, then tankers, then so on down to
supporting branches
Twenty-year career norm, officers served in few assigned positions
Most served in combat arms then moved over to supporting arms
Promotions through Lt. COL & selection for command delegated to the brigade
commander
Results:
–
–
–
Up to 1967, IDF achieved quick mobilization and quick victories with low casualties
Lost initiative during opening days of 1973 War, but recovered and quickly isolated Arab adversaries
Changed officer accession system approach to provide larger pool of officers in reaction to high officer
casualties in 1973—witnessed marked downturn in performance in the 1982 Lebanon invasion and
subsequent Intifada
Israeli Military History
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Author interviews with Martin van Creveld, October 1997
Author interviews with Dr. Ben Uzi, Israeli Army March 2010
Boyd, John, Patterns of Conflict. 1986. accessed 5 February 2005
Rothenburg , Erich Gunther, The anatomy of the Israeli army: The Israel Defence
Force, 1948-78, Praeger, 1997
Schiff, Zeev, History of the Israeli Army, Sidgwick & Jackson Ltd, March 5, 1987
Van Creveld, Martin, Command in War, Harvard University Press, January 1, 1987
Van Creveld, Martin, The Sword and the Olive: A Critical History of the Israeli
Defense Force, Public Affairs; 1st edition July 2, 2002
Unsuccessful Armies
Prussian Army of 1806
•
•
Need to change: faced with doctrinal changes unleashed by the French
Revolution & Napoleon’s operational level brilliance, the Prussians
formalized Frederick the Great’s centralized concepts of operations and
tactics without his brilliance
Debate was discouraged, even frowned upon
–
–
•
Officer accessions, promotions and development:
–
–
–
•
•
An enormous social gap between officers and enlisted men
The dry rot revealed itself at Jena-Auestadt (Oct 1806) when the Prussian Army collapsed
and fled
Drawn largely from Prussian nobility
Selection & promotions based on connections, not performance
Professional education did not exist
Symbols glorifying bravery and elan preferred over professionalism
Result: German reformers realized that an Army’s performance depended
on
–
–
–
–
Having a professional system of education and development to analyze lessons from military
history
A culture that encourages debate and intellectual ferment that is needed to evolve these
lessons into new ideas (and technologies) needed to fight the next war
A system of selection of promotion of officers that stresses ability and performance rather
than family connections
Evolutionary byproduct a culture of trust and mutual respect
The French Army 1870-1914, 1919-1940
•
The Revolution democratized the French officer corps which continued throughout
the 19th and 20th Centuries
–
–
•
Fatal weaknesses of the French officer corps of 1940 can be seen in many events or
attitudes prior to WWII
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
•
•
But the trust and mutual respect that united the German officers never evolved in the French officer corps
due to a system that promoted the individual at the cost of the whole
The failure of 1870 was an obsession with colonial warfare that made those at the top successful prior to
1870, and unable to cope with the new German method of war
Lack of mutual respect, careerism and corruption (e.g., Dreyfus Affair before WWI)
Alienation of the careerist military from the regime of the 1930s
Lack of solidarity with subordinates, particularly enlisted men (1920s and 1930s)
Suppression of internal debate (DeGualle)
Officer bloat (20% of total force) caused many officers to serve as NCOs
Inability to deal with unexpected situations (Metz and Sedan in 1870, Battle of Frontiers 1914 and the
German breakthrough 1940)
Centralized control and authoritarianism crushed the initiative of subordinates and blocked cooperation
between branches of army
Cartesian Outlook shaped education and thinking by attempting to impose order,
method and routine on the chaos of war
Result:
–
A culture that discourages discussion, debate and intellectual ferment risks turning inward by imposing the
unquestioned assumption on the lessons of history and new technologies to reinforce old ideas
•
•
Example, the French obsession with the doctrine of methodical battle after WWI (RMA)
Example, Maginot line (Star Wars)
French Military History
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Numerous interviews with Dr. Bruce Gudmundsson on French Military culture. Dr.
Gudmundsson founded and ran the USMC School of Advance Warfare (SAW)
course of majors in the early 1990s, and is currently a historian for the USMC
TECOM
Cook, Don, Charles De Gaulle: A Biography, G.P. Putman’s Sons, 1983
De Gaulle, Charles, The Army of the Future, Hutchinson, 1940.
Doughty, Robert, “From the Offense a’ Outrance to the Methodical Battle,” in
Maneuver Warfare an Anthology, Richard Hooker, editor, Presidio Press, 1993. Also,
Vandergriff interviews with Dr. Robert Doughty September and November 1997
Doughty, Robert, Seeds of Disaster: The Development of French Army Doctrine
1919-1939, Archon Book, 1985
Horne, Alistair, The Price of Glory: Verdun 1916, Penguin Books, 1962
Lottman, Herbert, Petain, Hero or Traitor: The Untold Story, William Morrow &
Company, Inc. 1985
Shirer, William, The Collapse of the Third Republic: An Inquiry into the Fall of France
in 1940, Simon & Schuster, 1969
Italian Army 1914-1942
•
•
Possessed the same doctrine as the Germans (copied their manuals
verbatim), but failed to create an officer corps that could execute it
Up through WWII, officers were selected from the aristocratic class, and the
separation between them and the enlisted ranks was considerable
–
–
–
•
•
officers were not united by a tradition on professional matters
Measures of performance, such as examinations, did not determine promotions, which were
made by a centralized selection board in Rome, usually with considerable political or family
influence
An excess of either “cleverness” (intelligence) or zeal was bad form
Combat experience came from beating primitive tribal adversaries in
colonial wars, where there was no pressure to develop military art of
combined arms warfare
Result:
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–
The culture of the Italian Army in 1939 was incapable of executing Maneuver Warfare
They professed Speed and Initiative in their doctrine, but they practiced centralized control
•
•
Why? Hierarchal, stand-offish relationships paralyzed commanders and subordinates by introducing
complex layers of bureaucratic procedures
Why? Formal requirements of protocol impeded frank communications
– Careerism increased risk averse behavior which curtailed freedom of action
Italian Military History
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•
•
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•
Cloutier, Patrick, The Italian Royal Army In Mussolini’s Wars, 1935-1945, republished
1987 to 2010, available as download from www.lulu.com
Gooch, John, Mussolini and his Generals: The Armed Forces and Facist Foreign
Policy, 1922-1945, Cambridge Military Press, 2007
Nicolle, David, The Italian Invasion of Abyssinia 1935-36, Osprey Publishing, October
1997
Sweet, John, The Mechanization of Mussolini’s Army, 1920-1940, Stackpole Military
History, December 30, 2006
Trye, Rex, Mussolini’s Africa Korps: The Italian Army in North Africa, 1940-1943, Axis
Europa Books 1999
Walker, Ian, Iron Hulls Iron Hearts: Mussolini’s Elite Armored Divisions in North
Africa, The Crowood Press , July 15, 2006
British Army 1856, 1898, 1939-42
•
Regime was not interested in its Army officer corps during 19th Century
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–
•
While they maintained one of the finest regimental systems from the time of
Cromwell’s army in the 1600s, its officer system
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–
–
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•
Recruited and selected officers from the aristocratic class up until WWII, but when offices
were needed for WWI and WWII, they expanded the officer corps too quickly
Regimental systems decentralized promotions to the lower levels (good), but selection was
influenced more by aristocratic background and wealth than by competence
De-emphasized education in the art of war, because the Army was viewed as a gentleman’s
profession (club)
Fixation on colonial threats coupled by gentlemanly amateurism created
conditions fostering a rigid doctrine with close (centralized) control
Authoritarian mentality of aristocratic tradition impeded learning by making it
difficult to admit mistakes
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•
Did not need a professional army to protect its elites from social revolution, like colonial
powers
Based its foreign policy on a maritime strategy & the colonial threats to its empire
Reports by junior officers were discarded after the Boer War and WWI
Results Regimental system built solid unit cohesion and a strong NCO
corps that never broke in combat, but could not evolve with war or adapt
during war
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Balaklava (1856), small unit NCOs withstood encirclement by superior numbers of Russian
Rork’s Drift (1898), encircled company beat off 3,000 combat veterans, highly disciplined and motivated Zulus
N. Africa (1941-1942), maintained cohesion and avoided collapse despite repeated tactical and operational errors when facing
British Army History
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•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Based on numerous discussions of British Army history with LTC Symon Tanner,
British Army liaison to ARCIC Forward
Chandler and Beckett, The Oxford History of the British Army, Oxford Military Press,
2003
Clayton, Anthony, The British Officer: Leading the Army from 1660 to Present,
Longman, 2007
Griffith, Paddy, Battle Tactics of the Western Front: The British Army’s Art of Attack
1916-1918, Yale University Press, 1996
Hastings, Max, The British Army: A Definitive History of the 20th Century, Imperial
War Museum, 2008
Miller, Stephen, Volunteers in the Veld: Britain’s Citizen Soldiers and the South
African War 1899-1902, Campaigns and Commanders, 2007
Strachen, Hew, Big Wars and Small Wars: The British Army and the Lessons of the
20th Century, Routledge, 2006
Strawson, John, Beggars in Red: The British Army 1789-1889, Pen & Sword, 2003
Mobilization doctrine
• Need for massive mobilization shapes today’s personnel
management policies
– up or out promotion system in order to keep officers fit and
young
• Need a place to keep everyone in order to move them up
– Numbers of officers kept top heavy to provide pool to lead new
formations in time of mobilization
– Large and many headquarters to oversee process and
adherence to doctrine, and provides place to put people
(institutionalized over time)
• Legacy of General George Marshall’s view of the world
– Remains organized to fight a linear war on the attritional model
for WWII
– Despite attempts at it, remains focused on individual vice unit
replacement
Up or Out Promotion System
•
•
Navy personnel act of 1916 first introduced up or out promotion system, but failed
because Navy had small officer corps (it requires a large, top heavy system to work)
Officer Personnel Act of 1947 (based on testimonies by Eisenhower, Marshall and
Bradley),
–
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–
•
1970 War College Study of Professionalism stated that the “up or out” promotion
system,
–
–
–
•
“contributed significantly to much of the undesirable and unethical conduct of its officers”
“seniors sacrificed integrity on the alter of personal success”
“junior officers perceived a preoccupation with insignificant statistics”
Debate began in 1974 over up or out that led to the Defense Officer Personnel
Management Act (DOPMA) of 1980, Senator Sam Nunn argued against it,
–
–
–
•
Significantly increased the size of the officer corps at the middle and senior grades for mobilization
Embraced the up or out promotion system to develop “generalists” while keeping the officer corps “vigorous
and youthful”
Established the “all or nothing” 20 year retirement system
“The up or out promotion system forced too-many experienced officers out”
“The number of officers at middle and upper levels were too high”
But, the Services wanted up or out
The theory behind up or out,
–
–
–
If the system works properly, there will always be more officers qualified for promotion than there are
vacancies available
Permits selectivity, the selection of the “best qualified”
By forcing officers up they would receive exposure to numerous jobs that could apply to a meaningful way in
senior leadership positions
References
•
Author’s Note: I found it necessary to revisit the research I did for Path to Victory: America’s Army and the Revolution in Human Affairs
due to many factors that influence the evolution of the Army’s personnel system influence Army ROTC. I added to the research I was in
the progress of making for Raising the Bar (2006) and Manning the Legions (2008). I also found that I had to update my knowledge of
Army doctrine (new FMs written during General Shinseki’s tenure at Chief of Staff (1999-2003) or as a result of his Transformation efforts,
laid new foundation and guidance for Army ROTC. General Schoolmaker assumed the duties of Army Chief of Staff in July 2003 and has
driven even more leadership-centric guidance, some documents such as “Adapt or Die” provided excellent direction for where the officer
accession programs—ROTC, USMA and OCS—should go to develop an “adaptive leader.” Recently, I was involved in the ARCIC
(TRADOC) Human Dimension study, as well as the 2010 writing and publication of the Army Capstone Concept. My research and
sources involved 10 areas and continue to evolve to this day:
•
•
•
•
•
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•
The history of the evolution of the U.S. Army and Army ROTC
A study of the U.S. Army officer’s corps study of warfare and its influence
A study of the evolution of the U.S. society and its influence on Army ROTC
The theories of leadership
An analysis of education and training approaches to teach cognitive skills
The history of political correctness
Reviews of psychology, sociology, anthropology,
The evolution of the influence of management science on leadership and academic development in the United States
A review of my research I had done for Learning From Others: The Officer Development Approaches of Armies through History. In this
book, which I never finished, I had examined the cultures of the armies Ancient Rome, Britain, France, Germany, Israel, and Italy
throughout periods of time to give insights to the officer development practices of other nations. For this, I am greatly indebted to Dr Bruce
I Gudmundsson, Dr. John Sayan and William S. Lind for their patience and time in teaching and checking my attempts at the French and
German languages. Bruce also directed me to many European military history web sites.
A study and understanding of the evolutions of war, particularly into the Fourth Generation of Warfare. I am indebted to Colonel T.X.
Hammes USMC, Mr., William S. Lind, Dr. Chet Richards, Franklin C. Spinney, Greg Wilcox LTC U.S. Army retired, and Colonel G. I.
Wilson USMC
I am indebted to Dr. Jonathan Shay for teaching me how to understand the value of trust in military organizations and being a “missionary”
in the effort to reform the military personnel system.
I am also indebted to my former boss, Lieutenant Allen Gill for our great conversations on leadership, how to develop it, how to create it in
our type of academic environment, talks on strategy, how the Army works, and just great stories about people. LTC Gill has allowed
Georgetown ROTC to evolve into a “Learning Organization.”
•
•
•
References
Listed below are a compilation of all the sources, including web
sites. I am indebted to the staffs of The Archives of the United
States: The Library of Congress; The Eisenhower Library U.S. Army
Command & General Staff College, The Lauinger Memorial Library,
Georgetown University; The U.S. Army War College, not only for
their assistance, but for the maintenance of some great sources
through web sites that saved so much time.
At this time I am also completing a roll up of the hundreds of notes
that I have taken since June 1998, as well as compiling informal
surveys I recently conducted.
References
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•
Addington, Larry A. The Blitzkrieg Era and the German General Staff, 1865-1945.
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