Test Name:
Middle School English Language Arts
Test Code:
0049
Time:
Number of Questions:
2 hours
90 multiple-choice questions (Part A); 2 constructed-response questions
(short-answer essay) (Part B)
Format:
Multiple-choice and constructed-response questions
Weighting:
Multiple-choice: 75% of total score
Short constructed-response: 25% of total score
Content Categories
Pacing and Special
Tips:
Approximate
Number of
Questions
Approximate
Percentage of
Examination
I.
Reading and Literature Study
45
37%
II.
Language Study
16
13%
III.
Composition and Rhetoric
29
25%
IV.
Short Essays
1. Textual Interpretation
2. Teaching Reading/Writing
2
25%
In allocating time on this assessment, it is expected that about 90 minutes
will be spent on the multiple-choice section and about 30 minutes will be
spent on the constructed-response section; the sections are not
independently timed.
Language Arts (Middle
Grades)
Middle School English Language
Arts
0049 1 145
Praxis II ® Paper-delivered Test Dates and
Deadlines
Praxis II ® Paper-delivered Test Dates and
Deadlines
Registration Deadlines2
Test
Date1
Regular Late Emergency
Scores3, 4
Outside Monday Multiple Constructed
U.S. Testing Choice Response
3/12/11 2/10/11 2/17/11
3/4/11
1/13/11 1/27/11
4/5/11
4/12/11
4/30/11 3/31/11 4/7/11
4/22/11
3/3/11
3/17/11 5/24/11
5/31/11
6/11/11 5/12/11 5/19/11
6/3/11
4/14/11 4/28/11
7/5/11
7/12/11
7/23/11 6/23/11 6/30/11
7/15/11
5/26/11
8/16/11
8/23/11
6/9/11
Reading and Literature Study
A. Knowing the major works and authors of literature appropriate for adolescents
B. Paraphrasing, comparing, and interpreting (literally and inferentially) various types of print
and nonprint texts, e.g., fiction, nonfiction, poetry, drama, and graphic representations
C. Identifying and interpreting figurative language and other literary elements, e.g., voice, point
of view, style, tone, diction, allusions, irony, clichès, simile, metaphor, analogy, character,
setting, theme, plot
D. Identifying the characteristics of literary forms and text structures, e.g., poetry, fiction,
nonfiction, drama
E.
Locating and interpreting literature within historical and cultural contexts
F.
Recognizing various critical approaches to interpreting text, e.g., shared inquiry and readerresponse theory
G. Recognizing and applying various strategic approaches to teaching reading, e.g., cueing
systems, activating prior knowledge, constructing meaning through context, and employing
metacognitive strategies
II. Language Study
A. Understanding and applying the conventions of grammar, usage, and mechanics, e.g.,
sentence types, sentence structure, parts of speech, modifiers, phrases and clauses,
capitalization, and punctuation
B. Understanding the development and structure of the English language, e.g., vocabulary
and syntax
C. Understanding principles of first- and second-language acquisition and development, and the
nature of dialects
III. Composition and Rhetoric
A. Understanding strategies for teaching writing
1. Individual and collaborative approaches to teaching writing, e.g., writing processes
(prewriting, drafting, revising, editing, publishing, evaluating) and how those
processes work recursively
2. Common research and documentation techniques, e.g., gathering and evaluating data,
using electronic and print media, and evaluating sources
3. Evaluating and assessing student writing, including knowledge of various assessment
tools and response strategies
B. Recognizing, understanding, and evaluating rhetorical features of writing
1. Thesis statements and appropriate support, e.g., evidence, examples, arguments
2. Audiences and purposes within varying contexts
3. Types of discourse, e.g., narrative, expressive/poetic, expository, persuasive,
reflective, informational, and descriptive
4. Coherence and organization, e.g., chronological order, transitions, cause/effect,
compare/contrast
5. Critical reasoning, e.g., recognition of bias and fallacies, distinctions between fact and
opinion, and identification of stereotypes, inferences, and assumptions
Short Essays
Question 1: Textual Interpretation
Stimulus
The stimulus for the literary analysis question will consist of a selection of prose (fiction or nonfiction)
OR poetry (a whole short poem or an excerpt from a longer work).
Task
Examinees will be asked to do both of the following:
1. Describe and give examples of the use of one or two specified literary element(s) present in
the stimulus, e.g., metaphor, simile, voice, narrative point of view, tone, style, setting,
diction, mood, allusions, irony, cliches, analogy, hyperbole, personification, alliteration,
foreshadowing
2. Discuss how the author's use of the literary element(s) contributes to the overall meaning
and/or effectiveness of the text
Question 2: Teaching Reading/Writing
Stimulus
The stimulus for the teaching reading/writing question will consist of a piece of student work OR a
classroom situation.
Task
Examinees may be asked to do any of the following:
1. Analyze a piece of student work or a classroom situation to determine strengths and/or
weaknesses
2. Describe an instructional activity referencing the identified strengths and/or weaknesses
This section presents sample questions and constructed-response samples along with the standards
used in scoring the essays. When you read these sample responses, keep in mind that they will be
less polished than if they had been developed at home, edited, and carefully presented. Examinees do
not know what questions will be asked and must decide, on the spot, how to respond. Readers take
these circumstances into account when scoring the responses.
Readers will assign scores based on the following scoring guide.
Scoring Guide
3
The response is successful in the following ways:
2

It demonstrates an ability to analyze the stimulus material thoughtfully and in depth.

It demonstrates a strong knowledge of the subject matter relevant to the question.

It responds appropriately to all parts of the question.

It demonstrates facility with conventions of standard written English.
The response demonstrates some understanding of the topic, but it is limited in one or more of the following ways:
1

It may indicate a misreading of the stimulus material or provide superficial analysis.

It may demonstrate only superficial knowledge of the subject matter relevant to the question.

It may respond to one or more parts of the question inadequately or not at all.

It may contain significant writing errors.
The response is seriously flawed in one or more of the following ways:
0

It may demonstrate weak understanding of the subject matter or of the writing task.

It may fail to respond adequately to most parts of the question.

It may be incoherent or severely underdeveloped.

It may contain severe and persistent writing errors.
Response is blank, off-topic, totally incorrect, or merely rephrases the question.
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Flashcards: Praxis II (0049) Middle School Language Arts
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Voice
Distinctive features of a person's speech and
speech patterns.
Tone
The overall feeling created by an author's use
of words.
Point of View
The perspective from which a
story is told.
Narrative Point of
View
The perspective from which the story is told four choices: first person; 3rd person
(dramatic, objective); 3rd person omniscient;
3rd person limited omniscient.
Diction
An author's choice of words based on their
clearness, conciseness, effectiveness, and
authenticity.
Mood
The feeling a text evokes in the reader,
such as sadness, tranquility, or elation.
Allusion
A reference to a familiar person, place,
thing, or event—for example, Don Juan,
brave new world, Everyman,
Machiavellian, utopia.
Irony
The use of a word or phrase to mean the
exact opposite of its literal or expected
meaning. There are three
types....Dramatic, Verbal, Situation.
Hyperbole
A figure of speech in which exaggeration is
used for emphasis or effect, as in I could
sleep for a year or this book weighs a ton.
Foreshadowing
A literary technique in which the author
gives hints or clues about what is to come
at some point later in the story.
Meter
A rhythmical pattern in verse that is made up
of stressed and unstressed syllables.
Phrase
Two or more words in sequence that form a
syntactic unit that is less than a complete
sentence.
Clause
A group of words containing a subject and a
predicate and forming part of a compound or
complex sentence.
Euphemism
The act or an example of substituting a mild,
indirect, or vague term for one considered
harsh, blunt, or offensive.
Connotation
The set of associations implied by a word in
addition to its literal meaning.
Denotation
The most specific or direct meaning of a
word, in contrast to its figurative or
associated meanings.
Holistic Scoring
A method by which trained readers evaluate a
piece of writing for its overall quality. There
is no focus on one aspect of the writing.
Alliteration
The repetition of initial consonant sounds in
words, such a "Peter Piper picked a peck of
pickled peppers."
Analogy
A comparison of objects or ideas that appear
to be different but are alike in some
important way.
4 sentence types
Simple, compound (conjunctions), complex
(subordination), compound-complex
(conjunctions and subordination).
Allegory
A story in which people (or things or actions)
represent an idea or a generalization about
life. Usually have a strong lesson or moral.
Anapestic Meter
Meter that is composed of feet that are shortshort-long or unaccented-unaccentedaccented, usually used in light or whimsical
poetry, such as limerick.
Anecdote
A brief story that illustrates or
makes a point.
Antagonist
A person or thing working against the hero of
a literary work (the protagonist).
Aphorism
A wise saying, usually short
and written.
Apostrophe
A turn from the general audience to address a
specific group of persons (or a personified
abstraction) who is present of absent. For
example, in a recent performance of
Shakespeare's Hamlet, Hamlet turned to the
audience and spoke directly to one woman
about his father's death.
Assonance
A repetition of the same sound in words close
to one another—for example, white stripes.
Blank verse
Unrhymed verse, often
occurring in iambic
pentameter.
Caesura
A break in the rhythm of language,
particularly a natural pause in a in a line of
verse, maked in prosody by a double vertical
line ( || ). Ex. Arma virumque cano, || Troiae
qui primus ab oris .
Characterization
A method an author uses to let readers know
more about the characters and their personal
traits.
Cliché
An expression that has been used so often
that it loses its expressive power—for
example, "dead as a doornail" or "I'm so
hungry I could eat a horse."
Connosance
Repetition of the final consonant sound in
words containing different vowels—for
example, "stroke of luck."
Couplet
A stanza made up of two
rhyming lines.
Archaic
Old-fashioned words that are no longer used
in common speech, such as thee, thy, and
thou.
Colloquialisms
(diction)
Expressions that are usually accepted in
informal situations or regions, such as
"wicked awesome."
Dialect
A variety of a language used by people from a
particular geographic area.
Jargon
Specialized language used in a particular field
or content area—for example, educational
_____ includes differentiated instruction,
cooperative learning, and authentic
assessment.
Profanity (diction)
Language that shows disrespect for others or
something sacred.
Slang (diction)
Informal language used by a particular group
of people among themselves.
Vulgarity
Language widely considered crude,
disgusting, and oftentimes offensive.
End rhyme
Rhyming of the ends of lines of
verse.
Enjambment
Also known as a run-on line in poetry,
_____ occurs when one line ends and
continues onto the next line to complete
meaning. For example the first line in
Thoreau's poem "My life has been the poem I
would have writ," and the second line
completes the meaning—"but I could not
both live and utter it."
Existentialism
A philosophy that values human freedom and
personal responsibility. A few well known
_______ writers are Jean-Paul Satre, Soren
Kierkegaard ("the father of _______"),
Albert Camus, Freidrich Nietzche, Franz
Kafka, and Simone de Beauvoir.
Flashback
A literacy device in which the author jumps
back in time in the chronology of narrative.
A metrical ______ is defined as one stressed
syllable and a number of unstressed syllables
(from zero to as many as four). Stressed
syllables are indicated by the ΄ symbol.
Foot
Unstressed syllables are indicated by the ⌣
symbol. There are four possible
types....Iambic: ˘ ΄ (unstressed, stressed),
Trochaic: ΄ ˘ (stressed, unstressed),
Anapestic: ˘ ˘ ΄ (unstressed, unstressed,
stressed), and Dactylic: ΄ ˘ ˘ (stressed,
unstressed, unstressed).
Free verse
Verse that contains an irregular metrical
pattern and line length; also known as vers
libre.
Genre
A category of literature defined by its style,
form, and content.
Heroic
couplet
A pair of lines of poetic verse written in
iambic pentameter.
Hubris
The flaw that leads to the downfall of a tragic
hero; this term comes from the Greek word
hybris, which means "excessive pride."
Imagery
The use of words to create pictures in the
reader's mind.
Internal
rhyme
Rhyme that occurs within a
line of verse.
Malapropism
A type of pun, or play on words, that results
when two words become mixed up in the
speaker's mind—for example, "Don't put the
horse before the cart."
Metaphor
A figure of speech in which a comparison is
implied but not stated, such as "This winter is
a bear."
Moral
A lesson a work of literature is
teaching.
Narration
The telling of a
story.
Onomatopoeia
The use of sound words to suggest meaning,
as in buzz, click, or vroom.
Oxymoron
A phrase that consists of two contradictory
terms—for example, "deafening silence."
Paradox
A contradictory statement that makes
sense—for example, "Man learns from
history that man learns nothing from
history."
Personification
A literary device in which animals, ideas,
and things are represented as having human
traits.
First Person
The story is told from the
point of view of one character.
Third Person
The story is told by someone
outside the story.
Omniscient
The narrator shares the thoughts and feelings
of all the characters.
Limited omniscient
The narrator shares the thoughts and feelings
of one (or a few) character(s).
Camera view
The narrator records the actions from his or
her point of view, unaware of any of the other
characters' thoughts or feelings. Also known
as the objective view.
Refrain
The repetition of a line or phrase of a poem at
regular intervals, particularly at the end of
each stanza.
Repetition
The multiple use of a word, phrase, or idea
for emphasis or rhythmic effect.
Rhetoric
Persuasive writing.
Rhythm
The regular or random
occurrence of sound in poetry.
Setting
The time and place in which the action of a
story takes place.
Simile
A comparison of two unlike things, usually
including the word like or as.
Style
How the author uses words, phrases, and
sentences to form ideas.
Symbol
A person, place, thing, or event used to
represent something else, such as the white
flag that represents surrender.
Transcendentalism
During the mid-19th century in New
England, several writers and intellectuals
worked together to write, translate works,
and publish. Their philosophy focused on
protesting the Puritan ethic and materialism.
They valued individualism, freedom,
experimentation, and spirituality. Noted
individuals of this philosophy included Ralph
Waldo Emerson, Nathaniel Hawthorne,
Henry David Thoreau, Henry Wadsworth
Longellow, and Oliver Wendell Holmes.
Verse
A metric line of poetry. Its name is based on
the kind and number of feet composing it
("foot").
Ballad
A short poem, often written by an anonymous
author, comprised of short verses intended to
be sung or recited.
Canto
The main section of a long
poem.
Elegy
A poem that is a mournful lament for the
dead. Examples include William
Shakespeare's "Eligy" from Cymbeline,
Robert Louis Stevenson's "Requiem," and
Alfred Lord Tennysone's "In Memoriam."
Epic
A long narrative poem detailing a hero's
deeds. Examples include The Aenied by
Vergil, The Illiad and The Odyssey by Homer,
Beowulf, Don Quixote by Miguel Cervantes,
War and Peace by Leo Tolstoy, Faust by
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, and Hiawatha
by Henry Wadsworth Longellow.
Haiku
A type of Japanese poem that is written in 17
syllables with three lines of five, seven, and
five syllables, respectively. Expresses a single
thought.
Limerick
A humorous verse form of five anapestic
(Composed of feet that are short-short-long
or unaccented-unaccented-accented) lines
with rhyme scheme of aabba.
Lyric
A short poem about personal
feelings and emotions.
Sonnet
A fourteen-line poem, usually written in
iambic pentameter, with a varied rhyme
scheme. Two main types are Petrarchan (or
Italian) and the Shakespearean (or English).
A Petrarchan opens with an octave that states
a proposition and ends with a sestet that
states the solution. A Shakespearean includes
three quatrains and a couplet.
Stanza
A division of poetry named for the number of
lines it contains...Couplet: Two-lines, Triplet:
Three-lines, Quatrain: Four-lines, Quintet:
Five-lines, Sestet: Six-lines, Septet: Sevenlines, Octave: Eight-lines.
Fable
A short story or folktale that contains a
moral, which may be expressed explicitly at
the end as a maxim. Examples include The
Country Mouse and the Town Mouse, The
Tortoise and the Hare, and The Wolf in
Sheep's Clothing.
Fairy Tale
A narrative that is made up of fantastic
characters and creatures, such as witches,
goblins, and fairies, and usually begins with
the phrase "Once upon a time..." Examples
include Rapunzel, Cinderella, Sleeping
Beauty, and Little Red Riding Hood.
Fantasy
A genre that uses magic and other
supernatural forms as a primary element of
plot, theme, and/or setting. Examples include
J.R.R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings, C.S.
Lewis' The Chronicles of Narnia, and William
Morris' The Well at the World's End.
Folktale
A narrative form, such as an epic, legend,
myth, song, poem, or fable, that has been
retold within a culture for generations.
Examples include The People Couldn't Fly
retold by Virginia Hamilton and And Green
Grass Grew All Around by Alvin Schwartz.
Frame tale
A narrative technique in which the main story
is composed primarily for the purpose of
organizing a set of shorter stories, each of
which is a story within a story. Examples
include Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales,
Ovid's Metamorphoses, and Emily Bronte's
Wuthering Heights.
Historical fiction
Narrative fiction that is set in some earlier
time and often contains historically authentic
people, places, or events—for example,
Lincoln by Gore Vidal.
Horror
Fiction that is intended to frighten, unsettle,
or scare the reader. Often overlaps with
fantasy and science fiction. Examples include
Stephen King's The Shining, Mary Shelley's
Frankenstein, and Ray Bradbury's Something
Wicked This Way Comes.
Legend
A narrative about human actions that is
perceived by both the teller and the listeners
to have taken place within human history and
that possesses certain qualities that give the
tale the appearance of truth or reality.
Washington Irvin's The Legend of Sleepy
Hollow is a well-known example; others
include King Arthur and The Holy Grail.
Mystery
A suspenseful story that deals with a puzzling
crime. Examples include Edgar Allan Poe's
"The Murder in Rue Morgue" and Charles
Dickens' The Mystery of Edwin Drood.
Myth
Narrative fiction that involves gods and
heroes or has a theme that expresses a
culture's ideology. Examples of Greek
______ include Zeus and the Olympians and
The Trojan War. Roman ______ include
Hercules, Apollo, and Venus.
Novel
An extended fictional prose
narrative.
Novella
A short narrative, usually between 50 and
100 pages long. Examples include George
Orwell's Animal Farm and Franz Kafka's The
Metamorphosis.
Parody
A text or performance that imitates and
mocks an author or work.
Romance
A novel comprised of idealized events far
removed from everyday life. This genre
includes the subgenres of gothic ____ and
medieval ____. Examples include Mary
Shelly's Frankenstein, William Shakespeare's
Troilus and Cressida, and King Horn
(anonymous).
Satire
Literature that makes fun of social
conventions or conditions, usually to evoke
change.
Science fiction
Deals with current or future development of
technological advances. Examples are Kurt
Vonnegut's Slaughterhouse-Five, George
Orwell's 1984, Aldous Huxley's Brave New
World, and Ray Bradbury's Fahrenheit 451.
Short story
A brief fictional prose narrative. Examples
include Shirley Jackson's "The Lottery,"
Washington Irving's "Rip van Winkle" D.H.
Lawrence's "The Horse Dealer's Daughter,"
Arthur Conan Doyle's "Hound of the
Baskervilles," and Dorothy Parker's "Big
Blond."
Tragedy
Literature, often drama, ending in a
catastrophic event for the protagonist(s)
after he or she faces several problems or
conflicts.
Western
A novel set in the western U.S. featuring the
experiences of cowboys and frontiersmen.
Examples include Zane Grey's Riders of the
Purple Sage and Trail Driver, Larry
McMurty's Lonesome Dove, Conrad
Richter's The Sea of Grass, Fran Striker's
The Lone Ranger, and Owen Wister's The
Virginian.
Autobiography
A person's account of his or
hew own life.
Biography
A story about a person's life written by
another person.
Document (letter, diary,
journal)
An expository piece written with eloquence
that becomes part of the recognized
literature of an era. Often reveal historical
facts, the social mores of the times, and the
thoughts and personality of the author.
Some have recorded and influenced the
history of the world. Examples include the
Bible, the Koran, the Constitution of the
United States, and Adolf Hitler's Mein
Kampf.
Essay
A document organized in paragraph form
that can be long or short and can be in the
form of a letter, dialogue, or discussion.
Examples include Politics and the English
Language by George Orwell, The American
Scholar by Ralph Waldo Emerson, and Moral
Essays by Alexander Pope.
Dialect
A variation of a language used by people who
live in a particular geographical area.
Phonetics
The study of the sounds of language and their
physical properties.
Phonology
The analysis of how sounds function in a
language or dialect.
Morphology
The study of the structure of
words.
Semantics
The study of the meaning in
language.
Syntax
The study of the structure of
sentences.
Pragmatics
The role of context in the
interpretation of meaning.
Participle
A verb form that usually ends
in -ing or -ed.
Ambiguity
Occurs when there are two or more possible
meanings to a word or phrase.
Euphemism
A socially accepted word or phrase used to
replace unacceptable language, such as
expressions for bodily functions or body
parts. Also used as substitutes for
straightforward words to tactfully conceal or
falsify meaning. Ex. My grandmother passed
away last April.
Double speak
Language that is intended to be evasive or to
conceal. Ex. "downsized" actually means fired
or loss of job.
Jargon
The specialized language of a particular
group or culture. Ex. in the field of
education...rubric, tuning protocol, and
deskilling.
Dialect
A variation of a language used by people who
live in a particular geographical area.
Antagonist
A person who opposes or competes with the
main character (protagonist); often the villain
in the story.
Character
A person or being in a
narrative
Conflict
Opposing elements or
characters in a plot.
Denouement
The outcome or resolution of
plot in a story.
Plot
The structure of a work of literature; the
sequence of events.
Protagonist
The main character or hero of a
written work.
Setting
The time and place in which a
story occurs.
Noun
a word which names a person, place or thing.
Ex. boy, river, friend, Mexico, triangle, day,
school, truth, university, idea, John F.
Kennedy, movie
Verb
a word which shows action or state of being.
Ex. In the sentence The dog bit the man, bit is
the ____.
Adjective
- a word which describes or gives more
information about a noun or pronoun. Ex.
The lazy dog sat on the rug, the word lazy is
an ____ which gives more information about
the noun dog.
Adverb
a word that gives more information about a
noun or pronoun. Ex. Sue runs very fast, very
describes the ____ fast and gives
information about how fast Sue runs.
Pronoun
a word which can be used instead of a noun.
Ex instead of saying John is a student, the
____ he can be used in place of the noun
John and the sentence becomes He is a
student.
Preposition
a word which shows relationships among
other words in the sentence. The
relationships include direction, place, time,
cause, manner and amount Ex. In the
sentence He came by bus, "by" is a _____
which shows manner.
Conjunction
a word that connects other words or groups
of words. Ex. In the sentence Bob and Dan
are friends, the _____ "and" connects two
nouns and in the sentence.
Article
a kind of adjective which is always used with
and gives some information about a noun.
There are only two _____ a and the.
A Bridge to Terabithia,
Katherine Patterson
fantasy childrens' novel published 1977 by
American author (1932-), Characters include
Jess Aarons, Leslie Burke, Mr and Mrs
Aarons; set in the late 1970s in Lark Creek;
Friendship, Childhood, Conformity and
individuality, Gender Roles , education
Sonnet 18, William
Shakespeare
comparative poem of the Elizabethian
Movement, author was born in 1564 and died
in 1616, "Shall I compare thee to a summer's
day?"
Not Without Laughter,
Langston Hughes
written and set during the Harlem
Renaissance (1920s, 30s); African American
author known for Jazz poerty, characters
include Sandy Rogers, Jimboy, Annjee
Williams; realities of black life in a small
Kansas town
Sounder, William Armstrong
young adult novel published in 1969, based
on a true story, set during 19th century in
Southern America; characters include "the
boy", "the boy's father", "the boy's mother";
author 1914-1999
The Joy Luck Club, Amy Tan
postmodern novel published in 1989;
characters include the Woo, Jong, Hsu, and
St. Clair families, set in China from the 1920s
to 1980s; author born in 1952
The Hobbit, JRR
Tolkien
postmodern, fantasy, heroic quest novel by
British author (1892-1973) published in 1937;
characters include Bilbo Baggins, Gandolf,
Gollom; set the Third Age of Middle-Earth,
2941-2942 in various locales in the imaginary
world of Middle-Earth
HG Wells
British author (1866-1946), wrote mainly
science fiction including "The War of the
Worlds","The Time Machine", and "The
Invisible Man"
Roll of Thunder, Hear My Cry;
Mildred Taylor
historical fiction concerning racial tension
published in 1976 by African American
author (1943-); characters include Casey,
Stacey, Christopher, and David Logan; set in
1930s in Mississippi
Holes, Louis Sacher
Mystery; folk tale; adventure novel;
published 1998 by American author (1954-);
characters include Stanley Yelnats, Zero,
Xray, Squid, Magnet, Armpit; set in 20th
century in Green Lake, Texas
Anna Karenina, Leo Tolstoy
Realist, psychological, tragic novel by
Russian writer (1828-1910); published in
1873; characters include Anna Karenina,
Alexei Karenin, Alexei Vronsky, Konstantin
Levin; themes include adultery and suicide
Sarah, Plain and Tall; Patricia
MacLachlan
children's novel set in 19th century Kansas,
published in 1985 by American author (1938); characters include Sarah, Anna, Caleb;
deals with abandonment, loneliness, and
death
To Kill a Mockingbird, Harper
Lee
Southern Gothic novel published in 1960 by
American author (1926-); characters include
Scout Finch, Atticus Finch, Boo; set 19331935 in fictional town of Maycomb, Alabama;
deals with goodness, integrity, rape and racial
inequality
The Picture of Dorian Gray,
Oscar Wilde
Gothic work written in Victorian era (18371901) by Irish playwright (1854-1900);
characters include Basil Hallward, Dorian
Gray, Lord Henry, Sibyl Vane; set 1890s in
London, England; deals with fear of lost
beauty, low morality, pursuit of happiness
Little Women, Louisa May
Alcott
dramatic, comedic novel published in 1869 by
American novelist (1832-1888); characters
include Meg, Jo, Beth, and Amy March; set
during Civil War period (1861-1865); deals
with poverty, personal growth
The Witch of Blackbird Pond,
Elizabeth George Speare
historical fiction published by American
author in 1958; characters include Katherine
"Kit" Tyler, Hannah Tupper, Nathaniel
Eaton; set in 1697 in Connecticut Colony
A Farewell to Arms, Ernest
Hemingway
Literary war novel published in 1929 by
American author (1899-1961); set during
WWI (1916-1918) in Italy and Switzerland;
characters include Lt. Frederic Henry,
Catherine Barkley, Rinaldi; deals with
romance and war
The Call of the Wild, Jack
London
adventure novel involving Realism and
Naturalism published in 1903 by American
author (1876-1916); characters include dog
named Buck, Judge Miller, John Thornton,
"devil dog" Spitz; set in late 1890s in
California; deals with cruelty
Frankenstein, Mary Shelley
Sci-fi, horror, Gothic novel written during the
Romantic Movement ( second half of 18th
century) and Industrial Revolution (late 18th,
early 19th century); published in 1818 by
British novelist ( 1797-1851); characters
include Victor, the monster, Robert Walton,
Elizabeth Lavenza
Jane Eyre, Charlotte Bronte
Gothic, Romantic, bildungsroman novel by
British novelist (1816-1855) published in
1847, characters include Jane, St. John,
Edward Rochester, Bertha Mason; set in early
19th century in 5 different locations in
England
Robinson Crusoe, Daniel Defoe
adventure, frame tale published in 1719 by
English writer (1659-1731); characters
include Crusoe, "Friday", The Portuguese
captain, Xury; set 1659-1694 at many
different locations including the island
The Giver, Lois
Lowry
fantasy, science fiction, dystopian novel
published in 1993 by American author (1937); characters include Jonas, The Giver, Lilly,
Gabriel; set in an unspecified time in the
future in an utopian community
Out of the Dust, Karen Hesse
historical fiction published in 1997 by an
American author ( 1952-); characters include
Billy Jo Kelby Anne, Ma (Polly), and Pa (
Bayard) ; set in 1934-35 in Oklahoma during
the Dust Bowl years; deals with guilt, sorrow,
and anger
The Catcher in the Rye, JD
Salinger
bildungsroman novel by American author
(1919-) published in 1951; characters include
Holden Caulfield, Ackley, Stradlater; setting
is a long weekend in late 1940, early 1950s in
Pennsylvania and New York; deals with
teenage rebellion and defiance
The Outsiders, SE
Hinton
bildungsroman novel published in 1967 by
American author (1950-); set in the mid
1960s in Tulsa, Oklahoma; characters include
Ponyboy Curtis, Darrell Curtis, Sodapop
Curtis, Steve Randle, Greasers and Socs;
deals with social division and class struggles
Because of Winn Dixie, Kate
DiCamillo
animal fiction published in 2000 by an
American author (1964-); characters include
dog (eponymous), Opal Buloni, Miss Franny
Block; set in Naomi, Florida at an unspecified
time; deals with emotional growth
Aurora Leigh, Elizabeth Barrett
Browning
epic/novel prose poem written in 1st person
blank verse, published during Victorian Era
(1837-1901) by an English author (18061861); eponymous character is a heroine
Prometheus Unbound, Percy
Bysshe Shelley
romantic 4 act play (closet drama), published
in 1820 by an English poet (1792-1822)
Hoot, Carl Hiaason
adventure novel published in 2002 by an
American author (1953-); set in Florida;
characters include Roy Eberhardt, Mullet
Fingers, Beatrice
Narrative of the Life and Times
of Frederick Douglas
memoir and treatise on abolition
encompassing 11 chapters published in 1845;
describes events of African American author's
life (1818-1895) ; deals with Civil Rights, but
NOT written during Civil Rights Movement
(1950-1980)
The Scarlett Letter, Nathaniel
Hawthorne
historical fiction during Romantic Movement
(second half of the 18th century); published
in 1850 by American novelist (1804-1864);
characters include Hester Pryne, Pearl,
Dimmesdale, Chillingworth; set in the mid
17th century in Puritan Boston; deals with
adultery and symbolism
Island of the Blue Dolphins,
Scott O'Dell
historical fiction published in 1960 by
American author (1898-1989); characters
include Karana, Ramo, Rontu, Tutok, set in
1835-1853 in Ghalas-at, an island off the
coast of California
Fahrenheit 451, Ray Bradbury
dystopian science fiction novel published in
1953 by an American writer (1920-);
characters include Guy Montag, Mildred
Montag, Captain Beatty, Granger; set
sometime in the twenty-first century, in and
around an unspecified city
The Bell Jar, Sylvia Plath
semi-autobiographical bildungsroman
published in 1963 by American author (19321963); characters include Esther Greenwood,
Buddy Willard, Doctor Nolan; set 1953-54 in
New York City and Boston; deals with suicide
and mental instability
Beowulf,
anonymous
heroic, epic poem displaying alliterative verse
and elegy; characters include Beowulf, King
Hrothgar, Grendel; set around 500 AD in
Denmark and Geatland (a region in what is
now southern Sweden) ; Anglo-Saxon
literature, using "Old English"
Beloved, Toni
Morrison
postmodern, contemporary historical fiction
published in 1987 by African American
author (1931-); characters include Sethe,
Denver, Beloved; set in 1873 in Cincinnati,
Ohio; includes ghosts and flashbacks
Night, Elie Wiesel
Holocaust memoir set during WWII (194145); follows author Eliezer (1928-) through
loss of faith, abuse and other experiences, set
in Transylvania (beginning) and
concentration camps in Europe
The Great Gatsby, F Scott
Fitzgerald
Modernist novel during the Jazz Age
published in 1925 by American author (18961940), considered to be part of the "Lost
Generation"; characters include Nick
Carraway, Joy Gatsby, Jordan Baker; set in
summer of 1922 in Long Island and NY City
Mrs Dalloway, Virginia Woolf
Modernist, formalist, feminist novel
published in 1925 by English novelist (18821940); set one day of party preparation in
mid-June 1923 in London, England;
characters include Clarissa Dalloway, Peter,
Septimus; deals with judgement
A Wrinkle in Time, Madeline
L'Engle
science fantasy novel published in 1962 by
American writer (1918-2007); characters
include Mrs Whatsit, Mrs Which, Mrs Who,
Meg Murray, Charles Wallace, Caulin
O'Keefe; set at an unspecified time and
throughout the universe
Walk Two Moons, Sharon
Creech
quest, adventure novel published in 1994 by
an American novelist ( 1945-); characters
include Sal, Phoebe Winterbottom; set in
1980s or early 1990s in Kentucky and Ohio;
deals with abandonment
Animal Farm, George Orwell
Animalism dystopian novella published in
1945 by English author (1903-1950);
characters include Old Major, Snowball,
Napoleon, Squealer; set in unspecified time
on Manor Farm in England
Aenied, Virgil
Latin mythological, heroic epic poem written
in dactylic hexameter by Roman poet (70
BCE-19 BCE); set in the late 1st century (2919 BCE) during the aftermath of the Trojan
War in The Mediterranean, including the
north coast of Asia Minor, Carthage, and
Italy; characters include Aenas, Dido, Turmis
Crime and Punishment,
Fyodor Dostoevsky
psychological suspense novel published in
1866 by Russian author (1821-1881);
characters include Rodion Romanovich
Raskolnikov, Sofya Semyonovna
Marmeladov, Porfiry Petrovich; set in 1860s
in St. Petersburg and a prison in Siberia,
deals with existentialism, alienation from
society, the idea of superman
1984, George
Orwell
dystopian political novel published in 1949 by
English author (1903-1950); characters
include Winston Smith, Julia, O'Brien, Big
Brother; set in 1984 in London, England;
deals with individuality and totalitarian
regime
The Color Purple, Alice Walker
epistolary, confessional novel published in
1982 by African American author (1944-);
characters include Celie, Alphonso, Nettie,
Mr.__, Harpo; set 1910-1940 in rural Georgia
The Real McCoy: The Life of an African
American Inventor, Wendy Towle
Biography of Elijah J McCoy (1843-1929), an
engineer and investor, who was known for
over 57 US patents, mainly in automatic
lubrication; published in 1995 by American
author; displays heroic status in African
American community
Macbeth, William Shakespeare
tragic play published in 1623 by English poet
and playwright (1564-1616) of the
Elizabethan Era (1558-1603); characters
include 3 witches, Duncan, Macbeth, Banquo;
set during The Middle Ages, specifically the
eleventh century in various locations in
Scotland; also England, briefly
Their Eyes Were Watching
God, Zora Neele Hurston
Bildungsroman, American Southern spiritual
journey novel published in 1937 by American
author (1891-1960); characters include Janie
Crawford, Tea Cooke, Phoeby Watson, Jody;
set in rural Florida in the 1920s and 30s
(Harlem Renaissance); deals with younger
love and search to find peace
Leaves of Grass, Walt Whitman
part of poetry collection, published 1855 by
American Realist and Transcendentalist poet
(1819-1892) known as the "father of
free verse" during Civil War period
(1861-1865); author wrote about sexuality
(especially homosexuality)
Charlotte's Web, EB White
children's novel published in 1952 by
American author (1899-1985); characters
include Wilbur, Charlotte, Fern; set at
unspecified time in a barn on farm
Ethan Frome, Edith Wharton
tragic romance novel published in 1911 by an
American author (1862-1937); characters
include Ethan Frome, Mattie Silver, Zeena;
set in the late nineteenth-early twentieth
century in Starkfield, Massachusetts; deals
with sexual tension and suicide
Lord of the Flies, William
Golding
allegorical adventure novel published in 1954
by British novelist (1911-1993); characters
include Ralph, Piggy, Island Beast, Jack,
Simon, Roger; set in the near future on a
deserted tropical island; deals with loss-ofinnocence
A Time for Andrew: A Ghost
Story, Mary Downing Hahn
horror mystery novel published in 1994 by
American author; characters include Drew
Tyler, Aunt Blythe
Self-Reliance, Ralph Waldo
Emerson
essay written by Transcendentalist American
author (1803-1882); essay NOT anti-society,
however focuses on the avoidance of
conformity and the importance of
individualism
Doctor Faustus, Christopher
Marlowe
tragic play written in blank verse, published
1604 during Elizabethan Era by English
dramatist (1564-1593); characters include
Mephastophilis, Wagner, Faustus; set during
the 1580s in Europe; deals with magic, the
supernatural, and tricks
The Canterbury Tales, Geoffrey
Chaucer
frame tale, collection of narrative poems
published sometime during the 14th century
or Middle English period (1066-1470), by an
English author/poet (1343-1400); characters
include pilgrims, Knight, Miller, Squire,
Reeve whom all share there stories; set
during the 14th century
The Fall of the House of Usher,
Edgar Allen Poe
sci-fi, gothic, horror detective short story
published in 1839 by American writer/poet
(1809-1849) during the Romantic Movement
; characters include the narrator, Roderick
Usher, Madeline; set deals with a gloomy and
mysterious estate
The Love Song of J Alfred
Prufrok, TS Eliot
dramatic monologue with refrains published
in 1915 by American poet (1888-1965);
isolation and compulsion
I Know Why the Caged Bird
Sings, Maya Angelou
Bildungsroman autobiography published in
1969 by African American author/poet (1928); set during the 1930s-1950s in California,
Arkansas, and Missouri; deals with
abandonment, racism, insecurity/inferiority,
and shame; other characters include Bailey,
Momma, Vivian
Alice's Adventures in
Wonderland, Lewis Carroll
fantasy, fairy tale, allegorical, satiric literary
nonsense novella published in 1865 by a
British author (1832-1898); characters
include Alice, White Rabbit, Mouse, Cheshire
Cat, Dyna; set during the Victorian Era c.
1865
On First Looking into
Chapman's Homer, John Keats
sonnet published during Romantic
Movement (second half of 18th century) by a
British poet (1795-1821); focused on the
astonishment at reading the works of ancient
Greek poet Homer; "Much have I travell'd in
the realms of gold,..."
Watership Down, Robert
Adams
allegorical heroic fantasy published in 1972
by English writer (1920-); characters include
Fiver, Hazel, Threarah, Big Wig, Captain
Holly; set May-June c.1972 between
Berkshire and Hampshire, England; deals
with search for a home
The Glory Field, Walter Dean
Myers
collection of stories about the Lewis family
published in 1994 by an African American
author (1937-); set 1753-1994; focuses mainly
on slavery and the struggle for freedom and
dignity during the Civil Rights Movement
(1920s-80s)
The Swiss Family Robinson,
Johann David Wyss
family adventure novel published in 1812 by
German author (1743-1818); characters
include Mom, Dad, Fritz, Jack, Ernest, and
Franz (Swiss family); set at an unspecified
time on an island; deals with confinement,
good values, husbandry, the uses of the
natural world, and self-reliance
Johnny Tremain, Esther
Forbes
Bildungsroman historical war novel
published in 1943 by American novelist
(1891-1967); characters include Johnathan
Tremain, Rab Silsbee, Priscilla Lapham,
Ephraim Lapham; set in the summer of 1773
and ends during April of 1775 in Colonial
Boston (during Boston Tea Party and
American Revolution); deals with transition
from arrogance to idealistic selflessness
The Lion, the Witch,and the
Wardrobe, CS Lewis
fantasy novel published in 1950 by Irish
author (1898-1963); characters include
Aslan, The White Witch, Peter, Susan,
Edmond, and Lucy Pevensie; set during
WWII (1939-1945) on the English
countryside and the magical land of Narnia
The Yearling, Marjorie Kinnan
Rawlings
Bildungsroman young adult novel published
in 1938 by an American author (1896-1953);
characters include Jody Baxter, Ora and
Penny Baker; set during the 1870s in the
animal-filled Florida backwoods; deals with
companionship, strained relationships,
hunger, death
Touching Spirit Bear, Ben
Mikaelson
teen novel published in 2002 by author who
grew up in the Andes Mountains, Bolivia,
later moving to US in 7th grade (1952-);
characters include Cole Matthews, Peter
Driscal, Garvey; set on a remote island in
Alaska for one year; deals with anger, rage,
hate, blame, fear, learned forgiveness
Julie of the Wolves, Jean
Craighead George
children's novel published in 1972 by
American author (1919-); characters include
Miyax, Aunt Martha, Amaroq, Daniel; set in
early 1970s in Northern Alaska (tundra);
deals with acceptance, life as an
Americanized Eskimo, running away from
home
The Legend of Sleepy Hollow,
Washington Irving
Gothic, folktale, historical short story
published in 1820 by American author (17831859) during the Romanticism Movement
and American Revolutionary War; characters
include Ichabod Crane, Katherine Van Tassel,
Abraham "Brom Bones" Van Brunt, Headless
Horsemen; set circa 1790 in Dutch
Settlement of Tarry Town, NY, in secluded
glen
The Voice on the Radio,
Caroline B Cooney
novel published in 1996 by American author
(1947); characters include Janie, Reeve; deals
with kidnapping, and acceptance issues
She Walks in Beauty, Lord
Byron
poem which focuses on beauty of one
particular woman; "She walks in beauty...like
the night"; published in 1815 by British poet
(1788-1824) during Romanticism Movement
In Reference to Her Children,
Anne Bradstreet
poem written in forty-eight tetrameter
couplets by English-American author (16121672) during Colonial American period;
maintains the bird reference throughout
poem; "I had eight birds hatch in one nest..."
The Chocolate War, Robert
Cormier
controversial novel published in 1974 by
American author (1925-2000); characters
include Jerry Renault, Archie Costello, The
Goober, The Vigils; setting is relatively
modern at Trinity High School; deals with
rebellion against bullies
The House on Mango Street,
Sandra Cisneros
Bildungsroman novella published in 1984 by
Chicana author (1954-); characters include
Esperanza Corderon, Lucy, Rachel, Sally; set
in crowded Latino neighborhood in Chicago
over a period of one year; deals with poverty,
sexual growth and maturity, writing as an
outlet
The History of the Nun, Aphra
Behn
prose narrative (short story) published in
1688 by British author (1640-1689) who was
the first woman to write professionally in
English; speculated to be based on author's
romantic relationship with Hortense
Mancini; set in the 17th century; analyzed
female sexual desire
Wuthering Heights, Emily
Bronte
Gothic novel published in 1847 by English
novelist and poet (1818-1848); characters
include Heathcliff, Catherine Earnshaw,
Hindley, Nelly Dean; set 1770s-1802 at
Thrushcross Grange; deals with love
The Pigman, Paul
Zindel
Young adult novel published in 1968 by
American author (1936-2003); characters
include John and Lorraine (both narrators),
Mr. Angelo Pignati; set on Staten Island New
York, early to mid 1960s; deals with
friendship, symbolism, death, maturation,
trust
Shiloh, Phyllis Reynolds
Naylor
children's novel published in 1991 by
American author (1933-); characters include
Marty Preston, Judd Travers, Dad, David; set
in Friendly, West Virginia; deals with
companionship and loss
Hatchet, Gary
Paulson
Bildungsroman, adventure, survival novel
published in 1987 by American author (1939); characters include Brian Robeson, Brian's
mother and father, Terry; set in Hampton,
NY, Canadian woods presumably in the
1980s; deals with death, self-reliance on
island
The Story of My Life, Helen
Keller
autobiography published in 1903; author
(1880-1968) was women's suffragist, workers
rights activist, socialist, who was the first
deaf-blind individual to earn a Bachelors
degree; well respected and honored by
society; includes Anne Sullivan (teacher)
Bud, Not Buddy, Christopher
Paul Curtis
historical fiction novel published in 1999 by
African American author (1953-); characters
include Bud Caldwell, Herman Calloway,
Todd Amoses; set in Flint, Michigan 1936
during the Great Depression; deals with
racism, abuse in foster home, search for
father
Any Human to Another,
Countee Cullen
irregular rhyme, five stanza poem written
during Harlem Renaissance by leading
African American poet (1903-1946); "The ills
I sorrow at, not me alone, like an arrow...";
was a cry for racial equality
Wild Nights! -- Wild Nights!,
Emily Dickinson
3 stanza poem published in 1891 and written
by an eccentric, reclusive, and introverted
American poet (1830-1886) ; some speculate
the meaning of the poem - eroticism?,
religion?; "Wild Night!-Wild Nights!, were I
with thee, Wild Nights!-Wild Nights! should
be our luxury..."
Civil Disobedience, Henry
David Thoreau
natural history essay published in 1849 by
transcendentalist author (1817-1862) who
was also an abolitionist and into simple
living; the active refusal to obey certain laws,
demands,and commands of a government or
occupying power, w/o resorting to physical
violence
Crispin: The Cross of Lead, Avi
historical fiction published in 2002 by
American author (1937-); characters include
Asta, Crispin, Duke of Lancaster, Father
Quinel, John Aycliffe; set 14th century
England; deals with being an outcast, hatred,
learning difficiencies
Adventures of Huckleberry
Finn, Tom Sawyer
Bildungsroman, Picaresque novel published
in 1884 by American author (1835-1910);
characters include Huckleberry
"Huck" Finn, Jim, Tom Sawyer,
Widow Douglas and Miss Watson, The duke
and the dauphin; set before the Civil War;
roughly 1835-1845 on The Mississippi River
town of St. Petersburg, Missouri; various
locations along the river through Arkansas
Picaresque
episodic, colorful story often in the form of a
quest or journey
The Road Not Taken, Robert
Frost
4 stanza, 5 line poem published in 1916 by an
American poet (1874-1963) who believed in
free will and fate as well as the appreciation
of rural life; "...Two roads diverged in a wood
and I - I took the one less traveled by, and
that has made all the difference"; irony,
regret?
The True Confessions of
Charlotte Doyle, Avi
historical novel published in 1990 by
American author (1937-); characters include
Charlotte Doyle, Zachariah, Captain Jaggery,
Samuel Hollybrass,Roderick Fisk, Seahawk
(ship); set early summer in the year 1832 on
voyage from Liverpool, England to
Providence, Rhode Island; deals with upperclass lifestyle, rebellion, betrayal, racism
David Copperfield, Charles
Dickens
Bildungsroman novel published in 1850 by
English author (1812-1870), considered the
most popular author of the Victorian Era;
characters include Agnes Wickfield, James
Steerforth, Clara Peggotty, Little Em'ly; set
1800s in England; deals with cruelty, the
plight of the weak, wealth and class, and
equality in marriage
The Awakening, Kate Chopin
Bildungsroman, modernistic novel published
in 1899 by American author (1850-1904);
characters include Edna Pontellier,
Mademoiselle Reisz, Adèle Ratignolle, Robert
Lebrun, Léonce Pontellier; set in 1899, at a
time when the Industrial Revolution and the
feminist movement were beginning to
emerge yet were still overshadowed by the
prevailing attitudes of the nineteenth century
in New Orleans; deals with selfishness,
feminist issues, the pursuit of happiness, and
suicide
The Red Badge of Courage,
Stephen Crane
Realism psychological war novel published in
1895 by American novelist (1871-1900);
characters include Henry Fleming, Jim
Conklin, Wilson; set during the Civil War in
1863 presumably during the Battle of
Chancellorsville; deals with courage,
manhood, and self-preservation
We Are Seven, William
Wordsworth
poem published in 1798 by English Romantic
poet (1770-1850); focuses on the distinction
between the dead and the living; "--A simple
child, that lightly draws its breath, and feels
its life in every limb, what should it know of
death?"; poet had optimistic view of nature
and dissatisfaction with rationality; believed
that childhood was a "magical and
magnificent time of innocence"
Moby Dick, Herman Melville
allegorical, tragic, epic, quest, adventure
novel, sea story published in 1851 by
American author (1819-1891); characters
include Ishmael, Ahab, Starbuck, Queequeg;
set 1830s or 1840s aboard the whaling ship
the Pequod, in the Pacific, Atlantic, and
Indian Oceans; deals with revenge, morals,
death
A Portrait of the Artist as a
Young Man, James Joyce
semi-autobiographical Kuntslerroman
published in 1917 by Irish author (18821941); characters include Stephen Dedalus,
Simon Dedalus, Emma Clery, Eileen Vance;
set 1882-1903 primarily in Dublin and the
surrounding area; deals with devotion of life
to art of writing, development of individual
consciousness, pitfalls of religious extremism
The Ear, the Eye, and the Arm,
Nancy Farmer
science fiction novel published in 1994 by
American author (1941-); characters include
Tendai, Rita, Kuda (children of General
Matsika), the "Mellower", Eye, Ear, and Arm
(detectives), She-Elephant; set in Zimbabwe
the year 2194; deals with isolation, pseudohypnosis
My Antonia, Willa
Cather
historical, frontier fiction recollection
memoir published in 1918 by American
author (1873-1947); characters include Jim
Burden, Ántonia Shimerda, Lena Lingard,
Otto Fuchs; set 1880s-1910s in and around
Black Hawk, Nebraska; also Lincoln,
Nebraska; deals with humankind's
relationship to the past and its environment
Maniac Magee, Jerry Spinelli
novel published in 1990 by American author
(1941-); characters include Jeffery Lionel
Magee, Aunt Dot, Uncle Dan, Beale and
McNab families, set in the Pennsylvania
towns of Hollidaysbury, Two Mills, and
Bridgeport at unspecified time, deals with
race relations, reconciliation, fearlessness,
running away, friendships
The Whipping Boy, Sid
Fleischman
novel published in 1987 by American author
(1920-); characters include Jemmy, Prince
Horace, Hold-Your-Nose-Billy, Cutwater,
Betsy, Captain Harry Nips; set during an era
of powdered wigs and highwaymen from the
royal castle to the countryside; deals with
misbehavior, running away, taking the blame
Old Yeller, Fred
Gipson
childrens novel published in 1956 by
American author (1908-1973); characters
include The Coates Family (mother, father,
Travis, and Arliss); set in Texas Hill Country,
1860s; deals with protection of family,
loyalty, death
Flowers for Algernon, Daniel
Keyes
controversial sci-fi short story published in
1959 by American author (1927-); characters
include Charlie Gordon, Alice Kinnian, Dr
Strauss, Professor Harold Nemur, Algernon;
set in New York city in the mid 1960s; deals
with mistreatment of the mentally disabled,
the tension between intellect and emotion,
and the persistence of the past in the present
Where the Red Fern Grows,
Wilson Rawls
novel published in 1961 by American author
(1913-1984); characters include Billy
Coleman, Old Dan, Little Ann, Rainie, Rubin;
set in The Ozarks, Oklahoma during the
Great Depression (1929-1940s); deals with
loyalty, death, competition
A Midsummer Night's Dream,
William Shakespeare
Fantasy romantic comedy about the
adventures of 4 Athenian lovers written 15941596 and published 1600 by English poet and
playwright (1564-1616); characters include
Puck, Oberon, Titania, Helena, Hermia,
Hippolyta; set in Athens and the forest
outside its walls, Combines elements of
Ancient Greece with elements of Renaissance
England; deals with love's difficulty, magic,
and dreams
The Crucible, Arthur Miller
tragic, allegorical, dramatic play published in
1953 by American playwright (1915-2005);
characters include Abigail Williams, John
Proctor, Rev John Hale, Elizabeth Proctor,
Rev Parris, Giles Corey; set in Salem,
Massachusetts, 1692; based on actual events
before Salem Witch Trials in 1692; deals with
intolerance, hysteria, reputation
Gulliver's Travels, Johnathan
Swift
satire novel published in 1726 by Anglo-Irish
author (1667-1745); characters include
Gulliver, The Emperor, The Farmer,
Glumdalclitch, Lord Munodi, Laputans; set
early 18th century primarily in England and
the imaginary countries of Lilliput, Blefuscu,
Brobdingnag, Laputa, and the land of the
Houyhnhnms; deals with might versus right,
the individual versus society, and the limits of
human understanding
Hamlet, William Shakespeare
tragic revenge play published in 1603 by
English playwright (1564-1616); characters
include Hamlet, Claudius, Gertrude,
Polonius, Horatio, The Ghost, Ophelia; set
the late medieval period in Denmark, deals
with the impossibility of certainty, the
complexity of action, the mystery of death
Candide, Voltaire
Satire, adventure novel published in 1759 by
French Enlightenment author (1694-1778);
characters include Candide, Pangloss,
Martin, Cunégonde, Cacambo; set in various
real and fictional locations in Europe and
South America in 1750s; deals with the folly
of optimism, the uselessness of philosophical
speculation, the hypocrisy of religion, and the
corrupting power of money
Drama
a composition in prose or verse presenting in
dialogue or pantomime a story involving
conflict or contrast of character, esp. one
intended to be acted on the stage; a play.
Playwright
someone who writes plays or the texts of
plays that can be read, as distinct from being
seen and heard in performance
Pastoral
a poem, play, or the like, dealing with the life
of shepherds, commonly in a conventional or
artificial manner, or with simple rural life
generally; a bucolic.
Epistle
A literary composition in the
form of a letter.
Metaphysical
poetry
unified by a philosophical conception of the
universe and of the role assigned to the
human spirit in the great drama of existence.
Antithesis
the placing of a sentence or one of its parts
against another to which it is opposed to form
a balanced contrast of ideas, as in "Give me
liberty or give me death."
Anticlimax
an event, conclusion, statement, etc., that is
far less important, powerful, or striking than
expected. a descent in power, quality, dignity,
etc.; a disappointing, weak, or inglorious
conclusion: After serving as President, he
may find life in retirement an _________.
Apocalypse
a prophetic revelation, esp. concerning a
cataclysm in which the forces of good
permanently triumph over the forces of evil.
Archetype
the original pattern or model from which all
things of the same kind are copied or on
which they are based; a model or first form;
prototype.
Burlesque
an artistic composition, esp. literary or
dramatic, that, for the sake of laughter,
vulgarizes lofty material or treats ordinary
material with mock dignity.
Catastrophe
(in a drama) the point at which the
circumstances overcome the central motive,
introducing the close or conclusion;
dénouement
Catharsis
the purging of the emotions or relieving of
emotional tensions, esp. through certain
kinds of art, as tragedy or music.
Conceit
A fanciful poetic image, especially an
elaborate or exaggerated comparison.
Closet drama
drama appropriate for reading
rather than for acting.
Discourse
communication of thought by words; talk;
conversation: earnest and intelligent
__________.
Epiphany
a sudden, intuitive perception of or insight
into the reality or essential meaning of
something, usually initiated by some simple,
homely, or commonplace occurrence or
experience.
Epilogue
a concluding part added to a
literary work, as a novel.
Exposition
(in a play, novel, etc.) dialogue, description,
etc., that gives the audience or reader the
background of the characters and the present
situation.
Figure of speech
any expressive use of language, as a
metaphor, simile, personification, or
antithesis, in which words are used in other
than their literal sense, or in other than their
ordinary locutions, in order to suggest a
picture or image or for other special effect
Grotesque
odd or unnatural in shape, appearance, or
character; fantastically ugly or absurd;
bizarre.
Inversion
reversal of the usual or natural order of
words; anastrophe.
Metonymy
a figure of speech that consists of the use of
the name of one object or concept for that of
another to which it is related, or of which it is
a part, as "scepter" for "sovereignty," or "the
bottle" for "strong drink," or "count heads (or
noses)" for "count people."
Motif
recurring structures, contrasts, or literary
devices that can help to develop and inform
the text's major themes.
Overstate
to state too strongly; exaggerate: to
___________ one's position in a
controversy.
Parallelism
Likeness, correspondence, or similarity in
aspect, course, or tendency.
Rhyme Royal
a form of verse introduced into English by
Chaucer, consisting of seven-line stanzas of
iambic pentameter in which there are three
rhymes, the first line rhyming with the third,
the second with the fourth and fifth, and the
sixth with the seventh; rhyming ababbcc
Scansion
the metrical analysis of verse. The usual
marks for __________ are ˘ for a short or
unaccented syllable, ¯ or ʹ for a long or
accented syllable, ^ for a rest, | for a foot
division, and ‖ for a caesura or pause.
Soliloquy
an utterance or discourse by a person who is
talking to himself or herself or is disregardful
of or oblivious to any hearers present (often
used as a device in drama to disclose a
character's innermost thoughts)
Sprung
rhythm
a poetic rhythm characterized by the use of
strongly accented syllables, often in
juxtaposition, accompanied by an indefinite
number of unaccented syllables in each foot,
of which the accented syllable is the essential
component.
Spenserian stanza
the stanza used by Spenser in his Faerie
Queene and employed since by other poets,
consisting of eight iambic pentameter lines
and a final Alexandrine, with a rhyme scheme
of ababbcbcc.
Stock character
a character in literature, theater, or film of a
type quickly recognized and accepted by the
reader or viewer and requiring no
development by the writer.
Strophe
(in modern poetry) any separate section or
extended movement in a poem, distinguished
from a stanza in that it does not follow a
regularly repeated pattern.
Stream of
consciousness
A literary technique that presents the
thoughts and feelings of a character as they
occur.
Superego
the part of the personality representing the
conscience, formed in early life by
internalization of the standards of parents
and other models of behavior
Synecdoche (sa-nek-ta-ki)
A figure of speech in which a part is used for
the whole (as hand for sailor), the whole for a
part (as the law for police officer), the specific
for the general (as cutthroat for assassin), the
general for the specific (as thief for
pickpocket), or the material for the thing
made from it (as steel for sword).
Terza Rima
an Italian form of iambic verse consisting of
eleven-syllable lines arranged in tercets, the
middle line of each tercet rhyming with the
first and last lines of the following tercet; aba
bcb cdc, etc.
Villain
a character in a play, novel, or the like, who
constitutes an important evil agency in the
plot.
Zeugma
the use of a word to modify or govern two or
more words when it is appropriate to only
one of them or is appropriate to each but in a
different way, as in to wage war and peace or
On his fishing trip, he caught three trout and
a cold.
Strategic Approaches to teaching reading:
Anticipation guides: pg 9
The purpose of an Anticipation Guide (Herber, 1978) is to activate student’s thoughts and opinions
about a topic and to link their prior knowledge to the new material. Because Anticipation Guides are
flexible strategies, they can be used effectively with any content area text as well as with non-print
media such as videos. Anticipation guided provide an excellent springboard for class discussion and lead
students into reading or viewing with a sense of curiosity about the topic. Although an Anticipation
Guide can be completed individually, assigning it to a small group promotes the collaborative aspect of
learning.
http://www.readwritethink.org/classroom-resources/lesson-plans/guided-comprehension-previewingusing-226.html
http://www.readwritethink.org/files/resources/lesson_images/lesson226/anticipation.pdf
Guided Comprehension in Grades 3–8
Combined Second Edition
Maureen McLaughlin and Mary Beth Allen
The Guided Comprehension Model is a step-by-step teaching framework that encourages students to become
active, strategic readers by providing explicit strategy instruction, opportunities for engagement, and a variety of
texts and instructional settings. This book has everything you need to use the Guided Comprehension Model
effectively with your students. Part I introduces new ideas for teaching Guided Comprehension and updated
resources that support its evidence base. Part II features 16 new lessons and includes planning forms, teacher
commentaries and think-alouds, samples of student work, and theme-based resources. Suggestions for
differentiating instruction, including teaching English learners, are integrated throughout.
Helpful appendixes offer teaching ideas, new classroom applications, reproducible blackline masters, forms for
organizing and managing Guided Comprehension centers and routines, literature response prompts, leveled
book resources, and assessment forms.
This book combines and completely updates the bestsellers Guided Comprehension: A Teaching Model for
Grades 3–8 and Guided Comprehension in Action: Lessons for Grades 3–8 into one comprehensive resource.
http://www.indiana.edu/~l517/anticipation_guides.htm
Contextual Analysis-
Using Contextual Analysis to evaluate texts
A contextual analysis is simply an analysis of a text (in whatever medium,
including multi-media) that helps us to assess that text within the context of
its historical and cultural setting, but also in terms of its textuality – or the
qualities that characterize the text as a text.
A contextual analysis combines features of formal analysis with features of
“cultural archeology, ” or the systematic study of social, political, economic,
philosophical, religious, and aesthetic conditions that were (or can be assumed
to have been) in place at the time and place when the text was created. While
this may sound complicated, it is in reality deceptively simple: it means
“situating” the text within the milieu of its times and assessing the roles of
author, readers (intended and actual), and “commentators” (critics, both
professional and otherwise) in the reception of the text.
A contextual analysis can proceed along many lines, depending upon how
complex one wishes to make the analysis. But it generally includes several key
questions:
1. What does the text reveal about itself as a text?
– Describe (or characterize) the language ( the words, or vocabulary) and the
rhetoric (how the words are arranged in order to achieve some purpose).
These are the primary components of style.
2. What does the text tell us about its apparent intended
audience(s)?
– What sort of reader does the author seem to have envisioned, as
demonstrated by the text’s language and rhetoric?
– What sort of qualifications does the text appear to require of its intended
reader(s)? How can we tell?
– What sort of readers appear to be excluded from the text’s intended
audiences? How can we tell?
– Is there, perhaps, more than one intended audience?
3. What seems to have been the author’s intention? Why did the
author write this text? And why did the author write this text in this particular
way, as opposed to other ways in which the text might have been written?
– Remember that any text is the result of deliberate decisions by the author.
The author has chosen to write (or paint, or whatever) with these particular
words and has therefore chosen not to use other words that she or he might
have used. So we need to consider:
– what the author said (the words that have been selected);
– what the author did not say (the words that were not selected); and
– how the author said it (as opposed to other ways it might or could have
been said).
4. What is the occasion for this text? That is, is it written in response to:
– some particular, specific contemporary incident or event?
– some more “general” observation by the author about human affairs and/or
experiences?
– some definable set of cultural circumstances?
5. Is the text intended as some sort of call to – or for – action?
– If so, by whom? And why?
– And also if so, what action(s) does the author want the reader(s) to take?
6. Is the text intended rather as some sort of call to – or for –
reflection or consideration rather than direct action?
– If so, what does the author seem to wish the reader to think about and to
conclude or decide?
– Why does the author wish the readers to do this? What is to be gained, and
by whom?
7. Can we identify any non-textual circumstances that affected the
creation and reception of the text?
– Such circumstances include historical or political events, economic factors,
cultural practices, and intellectual or aesthtic issues, as well as the particular
circumstances of the author's own life.
Stephen C. Behrendt – Spring 2008
http://www.unl.edu/sbehrend/html/sbsite/StudyQuestions/ContextualAnalysis.html
Informal Reading Inventories (IRI’s) AR/
What are informal reading inventories (IRIs)?
IRIs are individually administered diagnostic assessments designed to evaluate a number of
different aspects of students' reading performance. Typically, IRIs consist of graded word lists
and passages ranging from preprimer level to middle or high school levels (Paris & Carpenter,
2003). After reading each leveled passage, a student responds orally to follow-up questions
assessing comprehension and recall. Using comprehension and word recognition scores for
students who read the passages orally, along with additional factors taken into consideration
(e.g., prior knowledge, fluency, emotional status, among other possible factors), teachers or other
education-related professionals determine students' reading levels.
They also use this information to match students with appropriate reading materials, place
children in guided reading groups, design instruction to address students' noted strengths and
needs, and document reading progress over time. While IRIs serve a variety of purposes, perhaps
their greatest value is linked to the important role they play in helping educators to diagnose the
gaps in the abilities of readers who struggle the most.
Based on notions implicit in developmental (Chall, 1983; Spear-Swerling & Sternberg, 1996)
and interactive models of reading (Rumelhart, 1977; Stanovich, 1980),
IRIs provide information about students' reading stages and knowledge sources. For example, by
charting and analyzing patterns in oral reading error types, educators identify whether students
rely on one cueing system (i.e., graphophonic, syntactic, or semantic cueing system) to the
exclusion of the others, as beginning readers typically do, or if they use a balance of strategies, as
mature readers at more advanced stages do in their reading development when they encounter
challenges while processing text. Supplemented by other measures of literacy-related knowledge
and abilities, as needed, IRIs contribute valuable information to the school's instructional literacy
program.
Rationale for selecting IRIs to evaluate
Given the sweeping, education-related policy changes associated with the No Child Left Behind
Act signed into U.S. law in 2002, the IRIs included in this analysis were limited to those
published since 2002 because it was felt that they would be more likely to reflect features
relevant to the policy changes than IRIs published earlier. For example, federal guidelines
specify that the screening, diagnostic, and classroom-based, instructional assessments used by
schools receiving Reading First grants to evaluate K-3 student performance must have proven
validity and reliability (U.S. Department of Education, 2002) — aspects noted as weak with
regard to IRIs published earlier (Kinney & Harry, 1991; Klesius & Homan, 1985; Newcomer,
1985).
In addition, specifications in Guidance for the Reading First Program (U.S. Department of
Education, 2002) require that educators in Reading First schools evaluate students in the five
critical areas of reading instruction (i.e., comprehension, vocabulary, fluency, phonemic
awareness, and phonics) as defined by the National Reading Panel (NRP; National Institute of
Child Health and Human Development [NICHD], 2000) and screen, diagnose, and monitor
students' progress over time. Given these federal mandates, it was assumed that IRIs published
since 2002 would be more apt to exhibit the technical rigor and breadth in assessment options
necessary to help reading professionals achieve these goals.
The names of specific IRI instruments identified were obtained from searches in the professional
literature or recommended by professionals in the field of literacy. In all, eight IRIs were
identified, examined, and cross-compared with regard to selected features of their most current
editions. The following were the IRIs included in this analysis: Analytical Reading Inventory
(ARI; Woods & Moe, 2007), Bader Reading and Language Inventory (BRLI; Bader, 2005),
Basic Reading Inventory (BRI; Johns, 2005), Classroom Reading Inventory (CRI-SW; Silvaroli
& Wheelock, 2004), Comprehensive Reading Inventory (CRI-CFC; Cooter, Flynt, & Cooter,
2007), Informal Reading Inventory (IRI-BR; Burns & Roe, 2007), Qualitative Reading
Inventory-4 (QRI-4; Leslie & Caldwell, 2006), and The Critical Reading Inventory (CRI-2;
Applegate, Quinn, & Applegate, 2008).
Analyzing the IRIs
In order to cross-compare selected features of the current editions of all eight IRIs, a coding
spreadsheet was prepared and used to assist in the systematic collection of data. The categories
used were chosen because of their relevance to issues in the professional literature (e.g., length of
passages, type of comprehension question scheme used) or to policy and other changes affecting
the field today (e.g., assessment options related to the five critical areas of reading, reliability,
and validity information).
Interrater reliability measures
To ensure the accuracy of the coded data, I enlisted the assistance of a graduate student who
independently coded one of the IRIs. Afterward, our data charts were compared and the
percentage of agreement was determined with differences resolved by discussion. Following this
interrater reliability check, data from the separate coding sheets for each IRI were rearranged and
compiled onto additional charts in various ways in order to facilitate comparisons and the
detection of patterns among variables of interest.
Results
In all, eight IRIs published since 2002 were analyzed and compared in order to identify the
variety of ways in which the instruments approach key issues relevant to their use. Based on the
analysis, it is evident that the eight IRIs reviewed range in the assessment components they
include and in which critical aspects of reading instruction identified by the NRP (NICHD, 2000)
they assess. For example, measures for reading comprehension and vocabulary (i.e., sight word
vocabulary) were more common than measures in the other areas. An analysis of the IRI features
related to each of the five pillars of reading follows.
http://www.readingrockets.org/article/23373
GIST: (Cunningham 1982) is a strategy designed to improve student’s comprehension of text material and to
enhance their ability to write a summary paragraph. The acronym GIST stands for Generating Interactions
between Schemata and Text. While practicing this strategy, students will have added benefit of “honoring their
ability to analyze and synthesize content area readings.”
Write a 20-word GIST summary.
Write twenty key words and write a summary about it.
Metacognition is thinking about thinking, knowing "what we know" and "what we don't know."
Just as an executive's job is management of an organization, a thinker's job is management of
thinking. The basic metacognitive strategies are:
1. Connecting new information to former knowledge.
2. Selecting thinking strategies deliberately.
3. Planning, monitoring, and evaluating thinking processes. (Dirkes, 1985)
A thinking person is in charge of her behavior. She determines when it is necessary to use
metacognitive strategies. She selects strategies to define a problem situation and researches
alternative solutions. She tailors this search for information to constraints of time and energy.
She monitors, controls and judges her thinking. She evaluates and decides when a problem is
solved to a satisfactory degree or when the demands of daily living take a temporary or
permanent higher priority.
Studies show that increases in learning have followed direct instruction in metacognitive
strategies. These results suggest that direct teaching of these thinking strategies may be useful,
and that independent use develops gradually (Scruggs, 1985).
Learning how to learn, developing a repertoire of thinking processes which can be applied to
solve problems, is a major goal of education. The school library media center, as the hub of the
school, is an ideal place to integrate these types of skills into subject areas or students' own areas
of interest. When life presents situations that cannot be solved by learned responses,
metacognitive behavior is brought into play. Metacognitive skills are needed when habitual
responses are not successful. Guidance in recognizing, and practice in applying, metacognitive
strategies, will help students successfully solve problems throughout their lives.
Strategies for Developing Metacognitive Behaviors
1. Identifying "what you know" and "what you don't know." At the beginning of a research
activity students need to make conscious decisions about their knowledge. Initially students
write "What I already know about..." and "What I want to learn about...." As students research
the topic, they will verify, clarify and expand, or replace with more accurate information, each of
their initial statements.
2. Talking about thinking. Talking about thinking is important because students need a thinking
vocabulary. During planning and problem-solving situations, teachers should think aloud so that
students can follow demonstrated thinking processes. Modeling and discussion develop the
vocabulary students need for thinking and talking about their own thinking. Labelling thinking
processes when students use them is also important for student recognition of thinking skills.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Paired problem-solving is another useful strategy. One student talks through a problem,
describing his thinking processes. His partner listens and asks questions to help clarify thinking.
Similarly, in reciprocal teaching (Palinscar, Ogle, Jones, Carr, & Ransom, 1986), small groups of
students take turns playing teacher, asking questions, and clarifying and summarizing the
material being studied.
Keeping a thinking journal. Another means of developing metacognition is through the use of a
journal or learning log. This is a diary in which students reflect upon their thinking, make note of
their awareness of ambiguities and inconsistencies, and comment on how they have dealt with
difficulties. This journal is a diary of process.
Planning and self-regulation. Students must assume increasing responsibility for planning and
regulating their learning. It is difficult for learners to become self-directed when learning is
planned and monitored by someone else. Students can be taught to make plans for learning
activities including estimating time requirements, organizing materials, and scheduling
procedures necessary to complete an activity. The resource center's flexibility and access to a
variety of materials allows the student to do just this. Criteria for evaluation must be developed
with students so they learn to think and ask questions of themselves as they proceed through a
learning activity.
Debriefing the thinking process. Closure activities focus student discussion on thinking
processes to develop awareness of strategies that can be applied to other learning situations. A
three step method is useful. First, the teacher guides students to review the activity, gathering
data on thinking processes and feelings. Then, the group classifies related ideas, identifying
thinking strategies used. Finally, they evaluate their success, discarding inappropriate strategies,
identifying those valuable for future use, and seeking promising alternative approaches.
Self-Evaluation. Guided self-evaluation experiences can be introduced through individual
conferences and checklists focusing on thinking processes. Gradually self-evaluation will be
applied more independently. As students recognize that learning activities in different
disciplines are similar, they will begin to transfer learning strategies to new situations.
Phonics: The relationship between letters and sounds fundamental in beginning reading.
Semantic feature analysis:
http://www.readingrockets.org/strategies/semantic_feature_analysis
The semantic feature analysis strategy uses a grid to help you explore how a set of things are
related to one another. By completing and analyzing the grid, students are able to see
connections, make predictions and master important concepts. This strategy enhances
comprehension and vocabulary skills.
How to use semantic feature analysis
1. Select a category or topic for the semantic feature analysis.
2. Provide students with key vocabulary words and important features related to the topic.
3. Vocabulary words should be listed down the left hand column and the features of the topic
across the top row of the chart.
4. Have students place a "+" sign in the matrix when a vocabulary word aligns with a particular
feature of the topic. If the word does not align students may put a "–" in the grid.
The Semantic Feature Analysis strategy asks students to identify key words in a reading selection and
relate these words to the major concepts of the text. Using a graphical matrix, students . . .




List the key words of a reading selection.
Identify the meaning and properties of these key words.
Group key words into logical categories.
Relate the words (and categories) to one another.
This strategy makes special effort to draw on a student's past knowledge and experiences to define
and relate the key terms.
Steps to a Semantic Feature Analysis:
1. Select a topic or concept from a reading selection for student analysis. Introduce the Semantic
Feature Analysis graphical organizer (see below) as a tool for recording reading observations.
2. Help students list key vocabulary words related to the topic down the left hand column of the
chart. Next, assist students in listing the properties or features of the topic across the top row
of the chart.
3. Once the matrix is complete, review all the words and properties with the students and have
them carefully read the text selection.
4. While reading, students place check marks in the matrix when a vocabulary word reinforces
one of the properties of the topic.
5. After reading and completing the matrix, have students share their observations. Encourage
discussion about differing results. Ask students to identify which vocabulary words best
communicate the essential properties of the topic.
Reading Workshops: Why use Reader's Workshop?
Once implemented, Reading Workshop can quickly become students' favorite part of the day.
Since the format gives students tools for selecting and comprehending literature, students who
were once reluctant to read now find themselves with the skills needed to be successful readers.
Over the course of the year, students read many books and are encouraged to do as good reader's
do in exploring different genres, authors, and texts.
The program emphasizes the interaction between readers and text. Students learn to ask
questions, make connections with prior knowledge and previously read texts, and ask questions
to clarify faulty comprehension they recognize has occurred.
The program includes peer conferences and teacher conferences with students but emphasizes
students' independence and allows them to become successful readers outside of the classroom.
Reciprocal teaching:
http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/students/atrisk/at6lk38.htm
Reciprocal Teaching
Palincsar (1986) describes the concept of reciprocal teaching:
"Definition: Reciprocal teaching refers to an instructional activity that takes place in the form of a
dialogue between teachers and students regarding segments of text. The dialogue is structured by the
use of four strategies: summarizing, question generating, clarifying, and predicting. The teacher and
students take turns assuming the role of teacher in leading this dialogue.
Purpose: The purpose of reciprocal teaching is to facilitate a group effort between teacher
and students as well as among students in the task of bringing meaning to the text. Each strategy
was selected for the following purpose:



Summarizing provides the opportunity to identify and integrate the most important information
in the text. Text can be summarized across sentences, across paragraphs, and across the
passage as a whole. When the students first begin the reciprocal teaching procedure, their
efforts are generally focused at the sentence and paragraph levels. As they become more
proficient, they are able to integrate at the paragraph and passage levels.
Question generating reinforces the summarizing strategy and carries the learner one more step
along in the comprehension activity. When students generate questions, they first identify the
kind of information that is significant enough to provide the substance for a question. They then
pose this information in question form and self-test to ascertain that they can indeed answer
their own question. Question generating is a flexible strategy to the extent that students can be
taught and encouraged to generate questions at many levels. For example, some school
situations require that students master supporting detail information; others require that the
students be able to infer or apply new information from text.
Clarifying is an activity that is particularly important when working with students who have a
history of comprehension difficulty. These students may believe that the purpose of reading is
saying the words correctly; they may not be particularly uncomfortable that the words, and in
fact the passage, are not making sense. When the students are asked to clarify, their attention is
called to the fact that there may be many reasons why text is difficult to understand (e.g., new
vocabulary, unclear reference words, and unfamiliar and perhaps difficult concepts). They are
taught to be alert to the effects of such impediments to comprehension and to take the
necessary measures to restore meaning (e.g., reread, ask for help).

Predicting occurs when students hypothesize what the author will discuss next in the text. In
order to do this successfully, students must activate the relevant background knowledge that
they already possess regarding the topic. The students have a purpose for reading: to confirm or
disprove their hypotheses. Furthermore, the opportunity has been created for the students to
link the new knowledge they will encounter in the text with the knowledge they already
possess. The predicting strategy also facilitates use of text structure as students learn that
headings, subheadings, and questions imbedded in the text are useful means of anticipating
what might occur next.
In summary, each of these strategies was selected as a means of aiding students to construct
meaning from text as well as a means of monitoring their reading to ensure that they are in fact
understanding what they read.
Research Base: For the past five years, Palincsar and Brown (1985) have conducted a series of
studies to determine the effectiveness of reciprocal teaching. The initial studies were conducted
by adult tutors working with middle school students in pairs and by Chapter 1 teachers working
with their small reading groups averaging five in number. The students were identified to be
fairly adequate decoders but very poor comprehenders, typically performing at least two years
below grade level on standardized measures of comprehension. Instruction took place over a
period of 20 consecutive school days. The effectiveness was evaluated by having the students
read passages about 450 to 500 words in length and answer 10 comprehension questions from
recall. The students completed five of these passages before reciprocal teaching instruction
began and one during each day of instruction. Performance on these assessment passages
indicated that all but one of the experimental students achieved criterion performance, which we
identified as 70 percent accuracy for four out of five consecutive days.
These results were in contrast to the group of control students, none of whom achieved criterion
performance. In addition, qualitative changes were observed in the dialogue that occurred daily.
For example, the experimental students functioned more independently of the teachers and
improved the quality of their summaries over time. In addition, students' ability to write
summaries, predict the kinds of questions teachers and tests ask, and detect incongruities in text
improved. Finally, these improvements were reflected in the regular classroom as the
experimental students' percentile rankings went from 20 to 50 and above on texts administered in
social studies and science classes.
When the same instructional procedure was implemented in larger classes with groups ranging in
size from 8 to 18, 71 percent of the students achieved criterion performance as opposed to 19
percent of the control students who were involved in individualized skill instruction.
Furthermore, teachers observed fewer behavior problems in their reciprocal teaching groups than
in their control groups." (pp. 19-20)