Chapter 6
Social Influence
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Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005
Social Influence
Have you ever:
Asked a friend what was appropriate to wear
to a dinner, party, or wedding?
Agreed to buy something you didn’t want?
Agreed to attend a social event because
someone else asked you to?
Changed your behavior in response to a
direct order from a police officer, parent,
teacher, or school official?
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Chapter Outline
Categories of Social Influence:
Conformity, Compliance, and
Obedience
Goals of Social Influence:
Choosing Correctly
Gaining Social Approval
Being Consistent with Commitments
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Social Influence
Social influence –
a change in overt behavior caused
by real or imagined pressure from
others
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Categories of Social Influence
Conformity –
changing one’s behavior to match
the responses or actions of others
(no pressure necessarily)
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Categories of Social Influence
Compliance –
changing one’s behavior in response
to a direct request
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Categories of Social Influence
Obedience –
changing one’s behavior in response
to a directive from an authority
figure
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Conformity: Asch’s Research on
Group Influence
Which of the lines on the left most
closely matches line A on the right?
1 2 3
What would you say
if you were in a
group of 6 others,
and all agreed the
answer was 3?
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A
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Conformity: Asch’s Research on
Group Influence
When alone, 95% of participants got
all the answers correct.
1 2 3
But 75% went
against their own
eyes at least once if
the group gave a
wrong answer.
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A
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Conformity: Asch’s Research on
Group Influence
Conclusion: People faced with strong
group consensus sometimes go
along even though they think the
others may be wrong.
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Compliance
Someday he will ask you for a favor. (Reciprocation)
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Compliance: The “Foot-in-theDoor” Technique
Foot-in-the-door technique –
a technique which increases
compliance with a large request by
first getting compliance with a
smaller, related request
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Compliance: The “Foot-in-theDoor” Technique
Example:
People are first asked to wear a tiny
button supporting a worthy cause;
Later they are asked to put a billboard
on their lawn.
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Focus on Method: Participant
Observation
Participant observation –
a research approach in which the
researcher infiltrates the setting of
interest to examine it from within
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Focus on Method: Participant
Observation
Cialdini used participant observation
to study influence techniques used
by successful compliance pros.
He enrolled in the training programs of
a broad range of professions: sales,
advertising, public relations,
recruitment.
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Focus on Method: Participant
Observation
These observations suggested six widely
used and successful influence principles:
Reciprocation
Commitment/Consistency
Authority
Social Validation
Scarcity
Liking/Friendship
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Commitment
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Appeal to Authority
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Scarcity
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Liking/Friendship (Similarity)
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Obedience: Milgram’s
Shock(ing) Procedure
What would you do if an experimenter
studying “the effects of punishment
on memory” asked you to deliver
painful electric shocks to a fellow
participant?
What if the other participant was a
middle-aged man who had been
treated for a heart condition?
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Milgram’s Shock
Generator
esearch
Shock Generator
Caution
On
Amp Meter
Amps
Slight
Shock
Moderate
Shock
Intensity
Strong
Shock
Resistance
Very
Strong
Shock
Intense
Shock
Extreme
Shock
Danger
XXX
Slight
Moderate
Strong
Intense
Extreme
Very Strong
Danger
XXX
Shock
Shock
Shock
Shock
ShockShock
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Statements By
Shock Recipient:
esearch
Shock Generator
Caution
On
Amp Meter
Amps
Slight
Shock
Moderate
Shock
Intensity
Strong
Shock
Resistance
Very
Strong
Shock
Intense
Shock
Extreme
Shock
Danger
XXX
“Let All!
me out
of here!
me out of here!
“That’s
Get me
out ofLet
here!
Experimenter:
I told you
I had
heartbothering
trouble.
My
heart’s
me!…
My heartYou
is starting
to
mehold
now!me
have no
right
to
“Treat
nobother
response
ashere!
a wrong
Get me out
of
here,
please!
….Let
me
out!”
Let me out! Let me out! Let me out!”
“Hey!
This Really…silence...
Hurts!”
“Ugh!”
response.
Deliver the next
23 higher level of shock.”
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esearch
How Many Obeyed?
Shock Generator
Caution
On
Amp Meter
Amps
Slight
Shock
Moderate
Shock
Intensity
Strong
Shock
Resistance
Very
Strong
Shock
Intense
Shock
Extreme
Shock
Danger
XXX
All Still
All Still
All Still1 of
Over 60% Still
4 8 more
1 of
All Obeyed
Stopped Obedient
Stopped
Obeying
Obeying
Obeying
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Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005
Obedience To
Authority
esearch
Percent Obedient
100%
80%
65%
60%
40%
20%
Results suggest it is the authority’s
orders that were crucial (and not other
factors such as participant
aggressiveness)
20%
0%
Researcher
Commands
More Shock
Fellow
Subject
Commands
More
Shock
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0%
0%
Victim
Commands
More
Shock
Two
Researchers
Issue
Contrary
Commands
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The Goals of Social Influence
People yield to social influence to
achieve one or more of three basic
goals:
To choose correctly
To gain social approval
To be consistent with commitments
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Choosing Correctly
We have a motive for competence (to
master our environments for
rewards and resources).
To be competent, we must make
correct choices.
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Authority
Authority figures can be very influential
because they are often experts.
Following their directions can provide a
shortcut to choosing correctly.
Expert power –
the capacity to influence that flows from
one’s presumed wisdom or knowledge
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Social Validation
Social validation –
an interpersonal way to locate and
validate the correct choice
People frequently look to the behavior of
similar others for social validation.
The larger the number of people
performing the behavior, the more
persuasive it is.
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Uncertainty
In ambiguous situations, people tend
to rely on information provided by
others.
Sherif asked students to judge the
apparent movement of a stationary
light on a wall (autokinetic effect).
Judgments were strongly influenced
by what other group members said.
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Consensus and Similarity
We are especially likely to follow the
behavior of others when:
there is strong consensus among the
others (example: a large group all
agrees that the shorter line is the
longest one)
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Consensus and Similarity
We are especially likely to follow the
behavior of others when:
the others are highly similar to us
Example: “copycat” suicides involve
individuals similar in age and sex to the
victim in highly publicized cases.
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Uncertainty and the
Desire for Accuracy
Robert S. Baron, Joseph Vandello, and
Bethany Brunsman (1996) asked
students to choose a criminal
suspect from a line-up.
Some saw the pictures so quickly it was
hard to be certain about their
conclusions,
Others had ample time to be certain.
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Uncertainty and the Desire for
Accuracy
Some were motivated to be accurate
with the promise of a $20 prize,
Others had no incentive.
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Uncertainty and Desire for Accuracy
esearch
When participants were
uncertain of their own
judgments, motivation to
be accurate INCREASED
conformity
Percent Conforming
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
LOW
HIGH
When participants
were certain,
motivation to be
accurate
DECREASED
conformity
Importance of Accuracy
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Gaining Social Approval
Sometimes being factually correct may
make us unpopular.
Groups put strong pressure on those
with deviant positions.
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Social Norms: Codes of Conduct
Descriptive norms –
norms that define what behaviors
are typically performed
Example: Most college students dress
casually for classes.
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Social Norms: Codes of Conduct
Injunctive norms –
norms that define what behaviors
are typically approved or
disapproved
Example: It is inappropriate to wear a
bathing suit to most classes.
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Social Norms: Codes of Conduct
Norm of reciprocity –
the norm that requires that we repay
others with the form of behavior
they have given us.
Norms of Obligation across Cultures:
page 205
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Social Norms: Codes of Conduct
Cultural norms of reciprocity –
Market-based
Family-based
Friendship-based
System-based
Influenced by the person/situation
dynamic.
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Social Norms: Codes of Conduct
The door-in-the-face technique works
by asking for a large favor and then
retreating to a smaller favor.
This second request is typically
accepted because the concession
seems like a favor.
Thus, this technique capitalizes on the
reciprocity norm.
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Social Norms: Codes of Conduct
The that’s-not-all technique works by
making an initial offer, and then
just before the target responds,
enhancing the offer.
The enhancement is designed to seem
like a favor, and capitalize on
reciprocity.
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Desire for Approval
Certain individuals are very concerned
with social approval and seem
highly motivated to gain the respect
of those around them.
Researchers have found that these
individuals tend to adopt the voice
patterns of interaction partners.
(Larry King, page 195)
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Collective Sense of Self
Individualists define themselves in
personal and individualized terms,
focusing on features that distinguish
them from others (example: I am a
tall bassoon player).
Collectivists define themselves in
terms of the groups to which they
belong (example: I am a Muslim
family man). Page 205
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Resistance (Reactance theory)
Certain factors cause people to resist social
influence; “omega forces” p. 207
Disrupt-then-reframe technique –
a tactic that operates to increase
compliance by disrupting one’s initial,
resistance-laden view of a request and
quickly reframing the request in more
favorable terms
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Who’s Strong Enough to
Resist Strong Group Norms?
Even strong group norms (e.g. about
drinking or smoking) may not
influence a person’s behavior if
The person believes he or she has the
ability to resist group norms.
The person does not identify strongly
with the group.
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Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005
Factors Affecting Social Approval
Others’ Appeal
We are more likely to “go along to get
along” when the person attempting to
influence us is appealing due to:
1. Physical attractiveness (good looking
fundraisers generated 42% vs. 23%)
2. Shared group membership (“I’m a student
too” doubles donations from students)
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Factors Affecting Social Approval
Public Observability
When their own responses will be
observed by other group members,
people agreed more with groupjudgments of:
Whether a color patch is green or blue
Whether a cup of coffee is tasty
How to handle racist propaganda
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Focus on Application:
Doing Wrong by Trying to Do Right
When health educators focus attention on a
problem (such as drug use or smoking),
they may inadvertently focus attention
on the prevalence of that problem.
This may suggest that the problem
behavior is common (Wow!
Everybody’s using drugs).
It is more effective to emphasize that the
unwanted behavior is uncommon.
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Being Consistent With
Commitments
Personal commitments tie an
individual’s identity (or self-image)
to a position or course of action,
making it more likely that he or she
will follow through.
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Commitment-Initiating Tactics
The Foot-in-the-Door Technique
The Low-Ball Technique
The Bait and Switch Technique
Labeling Technique
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The Foot-in-the-Door Technique
Compliance with the initial request
changes one’s self-image to be
consistent with that first favor.
It would be inconsistent with this
image to refuse the second request.
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TACTIC
FIRST STEP
SECOND STEP
Foot-inthe-Door
Low-Ball
Bait and
Switch
Labeling
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TACTIC
Foot-inthe-Door
Low-Ball
Bait and
Switch
Labeling
FIRST STEP
SECOND STEP
Gain Target’s
Compliance
With a Small
Request
example:
“Would you
sign a petition
to help feed
starving exCEOs of
dot.coms?”
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TACTIC
Foot-inthe-Door
Low-Ball
Bait and
Switch
Labeling
FIRST STEP
SECOND STEP
Gain Target’s
Compliance
With a Small
Request
Make A
Related,
Larger
Request
Would you sign
a petition to
help feed
starving exCEOs of
dot.coms?
“Would you
work for 2
wks. in the
CEO soup
kitchen?”
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Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005
The Low-Ball Technique
After making an active choice for
something, people take “mental
possession” of it and it becomes part
of their self-concept.
It is often easier to continue with the
commitment than to change the selfconcept.
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TACTIC
Foot-inthe-Door
Low-Ball
Bait and
Switch
Labeling
FIRST STEP
SECOND STEP
Get an
Agreement to a
Specific
Arrangement
Get Customer
to Agree to Buy
a New Car for
$15,000
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TACTIC
Foot-inthe-Door
Low-Ball
Bait and
Switch
Labeling
FIRST STEP
SECOND STEP
Get an
Agreement to a
Specific
Arrangement
Change The
Terms of The
Arrangement
Get Customer
to Agree to Buy
a New Car for
$15,000
“Oh, you
wanted tires
and seats?
Then that’ll be
$15,999.”
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The Bait and Switch Technique
The Bait and Switch gets people to
accept a deal they would have
dismissed if it had been offered first.
It works by getting people to make a
commitment to a general course of
action (e.g., buying a new stereo).
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TACTIC
Foot-inthe-Door
Low-Ball
Bait and
Switch
Labeling
FIRST STEP
SECOND STEP
Advertise a Low
Price on a New
Stereo
Spur The
Target to Take
a Course of
Action
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TACTIC
Foot-inthe-Door
Low-Ball
Bait and
Switch
Labeling
FIRST STEP
SECOND STEP
Advertise a Low
Price on a New
Stereo
“That stereo is
no longer
available, but
just $99 more
buys this
beauty!”
Spur The
Target to Take
a Course of
Action
Describe
Course as
Unwise,
Suggest
Alternative
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Labeling Technique
The label (e.g. “you are generous”)
activates a favorable self-image.
This motivates the person to act in
ways that are consistent with that
self-image (to be generous).
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TACTIC
Foot-inthe-Door
Low-Ball
Bait and
Switch
Labeling
FIRST STEP
SECOND STEP
“You Are A
Very Generous
Person!”
Assign The
Target a Trait
Label
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Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005
TACTIC
Foot-inthe-Door
Low-Ball
Bait and
Switch
Labeling
FIRST STEP
SECOND STEP
“You Are A
Very Generous
Person!”
“Say, can you
contribute to
the college
teachers
fund?”
Assign The
Target a Trait
Label
Seek
Compliance
With a LabelConsistent
Request
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Harnessing Existing
Commitments
Certain commitments reside within a
person in the form of existing values.
Marketers who create links between our
personal values and their products will
likely have us as long-term customers.
Cults often connect their messages to
prevalent personal values (examples:
peace, justice, spiritual growth).
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Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005
Active and
Public Commitments
One way people come to perceive and
define themselves is through an
examination of their actions.
Like active commitments, public
commitments—especially when
freely chosen—lead to consistent
future behavior because they alter
self-image.
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Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005
Active and
Public Commitments
Students in one experiment were asked to
judge lines in an Asch-type experiment.
Before hearing group members make
erroneous judgments,
Some privately wrote down their judgments
(Active Commitment Only)
Others wrote their judgments and gave them
to the experimenter (Active plus Public
Commitment).
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Public Commitments
% Sticking w. Orig. Judgment
esearch
100%
80%
60%
Of those who made NO
COMMITMENT to their
original decisions, only
about half stuck with them
in the face of group pressure
40%
20%
0%
Neither
Active nor
public
COMMITMENT
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Deutsch & Gerard, 1955
Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005
% Sticking w. Orig. Judgment
esearch
100%
Making a PRIVATE
COMMITMENT increased
the likelihood of sticking to
the original correct
judgment
Public Commitments
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
Neither
Active
Active nor
Only
public
COMMITMENT
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Deutsch & Gerard, 1955
Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005
% Sticking w. Orig. Judgment
esearch
Public Commitments
Making the commitment
PUBLIC further increased
the likelihood of resisting
group pressure
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
Neither
Active
Active nor
Only
public
COMMITMENT
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Active Plus
Public
Deutsch & Gerard, 1955
Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005
Men, Women, and Public
Conformity
Men in some studies have conformed
less when they knew their
judgments would be made public
(e.g., Eagly, Wood, & Fishbaugh,
1981).
Why?
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Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005
Men, Women, and Public
Conformity
Roy Baumeister and Kristin Sommer
(1997) suggest:
Both sexes are motivated to be
accepted by their groups
But men aim to be accepted by
demonstrating independent, leadership
qualities.
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Changing Behavior Through Use of
the “Big Lie”
The Goebbel’s technique – a policy
of persons in authority repeating a
falsehood over and over until it is
taken to be the truth.
Also known as argumentum ad
nauseam “We know there are
weapons of mass destruction”.
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