Chapter 8: Thinking
Starting on p. 344
Guest Lecturer: Leah Shapira, M.A.
Music:
“Imagine”
John Lennon
“Think Like A Man”
Orianthi
Thinking: Agenda
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1. The Cognitive Revolution
2. Reasoning:
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3. Problem Solving:
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a) approaches
b) barriers
4. Judgments & Decision Making
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a) deductive
b) inductive
Problems (a-f)
5. Common Cognitive Distortions
6. Thinking Critically
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Pointers
1.The Cognitive Revolution
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“I think therefore I am…” Descartes
How do we know what we know?
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Authority
Reason:
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Observation:
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Considered by Renaissance scholars to be the most reliable
source of knowledge
Basis for empirical knowledge
Cognitive Psychologists:
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Study reasoning, judgments, decision making, and
problem solving
2. Reasoning
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a) Deductive:
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Drawing a conclusion that follows logically from two
or more statements or premises
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Note: **If one of the premises is false, then conclusion
must be false
Example:
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Premise 1: All human beings have cognitions
Premise 2: All cognitions are intelligent
Conclusion: All human beings have intelligent
cognitions….
Valid but false conclusion
2. a) Deductive Reasoning
(cont’d)
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Invalid Conclusions:
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Conclusions must follow logically from 2 or more premises
to be valid
Example:
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Premise 1: Some A’s are B’s
Premise 2: Some B’s are C’s
Conclusion: Some A’s are C’s?
OR
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Premise 1: Some women are intelligent beings
Premise 2: Some intelligent beings are men
Conclusion: Some women are men?
A’s
B’s
C’s
2. a) Deductive Reasoning
(cont’d)
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Belief Bias Effect:
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We tend to judge as true those conclusions with
which we agree, and as untrue those with which
we disagree
2. a) Confirmation bias: p. 362
A Look at Critical Thinking…
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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6OLPL5
p0fMg
2. b) Inductive Reasoning
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Problem solver goes from the particular to the general
Typical in process in science
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Base a hypothesis on limited evidence, and test it against
other evidence
Example:
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Problems of inducing structure (p. 344):
Can you supply missing number?
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1 3 4 7 ___
5 9 13 __ 21
Analogies:
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Carpenter: House Author:_____
Star: Constellation Room:______
3. Problem Solving
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Thinking directed toward solving a specific problem.
Approaches:
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Clarify! What is initial state? What is goal state?
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Means-end analysis:
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specify subproblems and subgoals to move from initial state to
goal
b) Barriers: p. 326-327
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Functional Fixedness
Mental Sets: Can help or hinder
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E.g. O-T-T- __ -__ -__
J- F- M- A- __ - __ - __
Stress: leads to fixation
4. Judgments & Decision Making
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Judgments:
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Processes by which we form opinions, reach conclusions,
make evaluations of people and events
Problems:
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a) Overconfidence effect p. 342
b) Availability Heuristic p. 337
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Basing a probability on the ease with which an example
comes to mind
E.g. Which is the most frequent cause of death?
 1) Homicides vs diabetes
 2) Leukemia vs drowning
 3) Earthquakes vs asthma
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c) Representativeness Heuristic:
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Basing a probability on the similarity with a prototype
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“The Second Mind”
http://www.gladwell.co
m/blink/blink_excerpt1
.html
4. Heuristics
cont’d
 c) Representativeness Heuristic (con’d):
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E.g. You hear about a person who is short, slim, and
likes to read poetry.
Is this person more likely to be a Literature Professor,
or a truck driver?
d) Conjunction Fallacy: (p. 338)
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E.g. Bill is 34 years old, intelligent, unimaginative,
compulsive, and somewhat boring. Which is more
likely to be true?
Bill plays jazz as a hobby OR
Bill is an accountant who plays jazz as a hobby
Jazz as hobby
Accountants
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p.357
4. Judgments & Decision
Making (cont’d)
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e) Framing: (p. 362)
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Decisions are heavily influenced by the way in which a
question is asked
E.g. Will you undergo a particular surgery if:
a) 90% chance of recovery
b) 10% chance of death
f) Alternative Outcomes Effect
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Perceived likelihood of a certain outcome is influenced by
the distribution of alternative outcomes
Another example of “bounded rationality”
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People deviate in predictable ways from optimal decision
making
5. Common Cognitive
Distortions
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Arbitrary Inference:
 Drawing unfavorable conclusions about oneself without
evidence (e.g. mind-reading/ fortune-telling)
Magnification and minimization:
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Overgeneralization:
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Dwelling on the negative and discounting the positive
Viewing a negative event as a never-ending pattern of defeat
Reasoning from how you feel:
 E.g. “I feel like an idiot… Therefore, I must be one.”
Personalization:
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Taking blame for events that are unintended or beyond one’s
control
6. Thinking Critically
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Critical Thinking:
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Ability to make objective judgments on the basis of wellsupported reasons and evidence
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Rather than basing your judgment on emotion or anecdotal
evidence
To improve:
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Remember common pitfalls
Define your terms concretely
Examine the evidence
 Be aware of your biases
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Avoid emotional reasoning
Avoid simplistic explanations
Tolerate uncertainty
 Form convictions with care, and carry them lightly!
Wishing You: