Ch. 25: Nixon, Ford, Carter
(1969-1981)
Section 1: Nixon’s Domestic Policy
Nixon’s Story
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Grew up in a low-income
family in California.
Gained prominence amidst
McCarthyism during the
1950s.
Lost presidential election
to JFK in 1960 and
California Governor race in
1962, vowed to leave
politics.
Nixon
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Due to his poor status growing up and early political defeats, Nixon
constantly felt like an outsider, that he needed to prove himself.
Unlike most politicians, he was reserved, uncomfortable with people,
and lacked a sense of humor.
Had a very close inner-circle and tried to avoid the press and other
people.
Nixon’s Staff
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H.R. Haldeman- chief of
staff
John Ehrlichman- chief
domestic advisor
Henry Kissinger- national
security advisor then
Secretary of State
The Economy
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When Nixon took office, inflation and
unemployment were rising.
Initially, he hoped to cut federal spending,
but eventually determined deficit spending
was necessary to stimulate the economy.
Oil Crisis
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In 1973, Israel went to war
with Egypt and Syria.
The U.S. backed Israel
In response, Arab members
of OPEC (Organization of
Petroleum Exporting
Countries) imposed an oil
embargo on the U.S.
OPEC also quadrupled oil
prices.
Created inflation in the U.S.
and resulted in further
economic recession.
Social Programs
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Nixon wanted to cut back on social programs
started by LBJ.
Once in office, however, he didn’t want to lose
his appeal to working class voters who favored
social welfare.
He called for what he called a New Federalism,
for state governments to share more of the
responsibility for the social welfare of their
citizens.
“Southern Strategy”
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Nixon had won such a little
percentage of the black
vote, that he thought by
trying to improve his appeal
to them would only hurt his
support from Southern
whites.
Thus, he took a middle road
on integration issues.
Opposed increased bussing
that would bring black
students from other regions
to integrated schools.
Nixon’s Supreme Court
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Nixon had criticized the Supreme Court for being
too liberal.
During his first term, four justices died or
resigned, allowing him to appoint nearly half the
Supreme Court.
Two of his first nominees were rejected by the
Senate for showing racial bias.
Eventually the Senate approved four moderate
to conservative members to the SC.
First Moon Landing
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On July 20, 1969, astronaut Neil Armstrong became
the first man to walk on the moon.
Fulfilled the goal JFK had sent for the U.S. almost 10
years before, in 1961.
Section 2: Nixon’s Foreign Policy
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Nixon’s major foreign policy achievement was an easing of
tensions between the U.S. and the Soviet Union, and China.
Henry Kissinger
Détente
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Nixon and Kissinger successfully negotiated a
détente, or a relaxation of tension between the
U.S., the Soviet Union, and China.
During the red scare of the 50s, Nixon had been
the toughest of anti-Communists.
As president, along w/ Kissinger, however, he
began to see foreign policy as a much more
complex scenario.
Shifting Relationships
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One major transformation led to some new
negotiations:
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The USSR and China, once allies, were now bitter
enemies.
Kissinger noted, in a game-changing observation,
“The deepest international conflict in the world today,
is not between us and the Soviet Union but between
the Soviet Union and Communist China.”
This challenged the free world v. Communist
world understanding widely accepted ever since
WWII.
Thawing Relations with China
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The U.S. had completely refused to recognize the legitimacy of
China’s Communist government for over 20 years.
Nixon proposed a friendlier relationship and began easing the
relationship.
In April, 1971, the American table-tennis team accepted an invitation
to visit the mainland.
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This series of negotiations and eased connections is known, thus, known
as “ping-pong diplomacy”
Nixon in China
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In 1972, Nixon himself became the first American President
to visit China.
Détente in Soviet Union
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Soon after China, Nixon visited the Soviet Union.
Received an equally warm welcome.
In friendly meetings with Leonid Brezhnev, they reached
several agreements on a general easement in the relationship
between the countries.
Limiting Nuclear Arms
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To reduce the nuclear arms race, Nixon had
started the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks in
1969.
At their meeting in 1972, Nixon and Brezhnev
signed the first major agreement known as SALT
I.
SALT I limited the creation and deployment of
ballistic missiles for both countries.
SALT I
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In reality, SALT I did not reduce the number of nuclear warheads
possessed by either country.
In fact, both continued improving their weapons in other ways.
It was, however, seen as a positive step toward negotiation and a
willingness to collaborate towards global security.
Section 3: The Watergate Scandal
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In an effort to win reelection in 1972, Nixon attempted
to cover up crimes committed by his closest staff
members that aided him in the election.
Enemies List
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Nixon ran the White House
with lots of secrecy and
suspicion.
He and his staff developed
an enemy list, of prominent
people seen as opposition
to the administration.
They arranged for ways to
harass these people;
example: income tax
investigations.
Wiretaps
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To control all information,
Nixon had wiretaps,
listening devices, installed
on the telephones of his
own staff members.
He also tapped some
news reporters’ phones.
For security reasons
many of the early
wiretaps were legal, but
led to illegal uses later
on.
The Plumbers
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In 1971, Daniel Ellsberg, former Defense Department official,
leaked a secret Pentagon study of the Vietnam War to the NY
Times.
Nixon was furious about this and following the leaks
organized a group known as the Plumbers to punish Ellsberg.
They broke into the office of Ellsberg’s psychiatrist hoping to
find information to discredit his name.
1972 Election
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Nixon was determined to win the 1972 election, and
win big.
He approved questionable slander tactics.
His major violation, however, surrounded Watergate.
The Watergate Break-In
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A group consisting of the “Plumbers” planned to wiretape
phones at Democratic National Committee headquarters
in the Watergate apartment complex.
Their first break-in failed.
On June 17, 1972, five men were arrested for breaking
into Watergate.
Watergate
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The Watergate burglars carried money that was linked to
Nixon’s reelection campaign committee.
Nixon contacted the CIA and told them to try and
persuade the FBI to stop investigating, as a matter of
“national security”.
Nixon hadn’t planned the Watergate break-in, but this
cover-up action involved him in the illegal act.
1972 Election
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The Watergate scandal was successfully kept hidden
from the public.
Nixon won the 1972 election in a landslide, 520-17.
Scandal Unfolds
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People kept asking questions about
Watergate.
The trial of the Watergate burglars began
in January 1973.
All the defendants plead guilty, Nixon
himself approved “hush money” for one
defendant.
Watergate Trial
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Judge John J. Sirica wasn’t satisfied with the lack of
information during the trial.
He sentenced them to up to 40 years in prison that could
be reduced if they cooperated with Senate hearings on
Watergate.
Woodward and Bernstein
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Washington Post
reporters, Bob Woodward
and Carl Bernstein, were
following leads and
uncovering bits of the
story.
Their continued stories
and research helped
slowly uncover White
House involvement.
Senate Investigations
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One of the burglars agreed
to testify before a secret
session of Senate
committee members.
His vague testimony
suggested Nixon staffers
involvement.
As rumors spread, Nixon
forced his top aids,
Haldeman and Ehrlichman,
to resign.
Investigation
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In May 1973, the Senate
committee began televised
public hearings.
John Dean, the President’s
personal legal counselor
testified that Nixon knew
about the cover-up.
Alexander Butterfield, a former
presidential assistant, revealed
a secret taping system in the
Oval Office that recorded all
meetings and phone
conversations.
“Saturday Night Massacre”
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To appear honest, Nixon
agreed to appoint a special
prosecutor to conduct an
independent investigation.
His appointee, Archibald Cox,
immediately asked for the
tapes.
Nixon refused, then fired Cox
on Saturday, October 20,
1973.
This triggered a series of
resignations and firings
known as the Saturday Night
Massacre.
Nixon in Jeopardy
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Nixon now appeared in
serious trouble.
Tried to appear innocent by
releasing edited transcripts of
conversations, taking out the
most damaging evidence.
Meanwhile, Vice President
Spiro Agnew resigned after
being accused of evading
taxes and taking bribes.
Nixon appointed Gerald Ford
to succeed Agnew.
Hearings Begin
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In July 1974, Congress began to determine if Nixon
should be impeached, charged with misconduct.
On national television, even many Republicans began
deserting the President.
Tapes
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Finally on August 5, Nixon
obeyed a Supreme Court
ruling and released the
tapes.
The tapes had a gap of 18.5
minutes that had been
erased.
Even still, the tapes gave
clear evidence of Nixon’s
involvement in the coverup.
Nixon Resigns
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In the face of certain impeachment and removal, Nixon
resigned on August 9, 1974.
Vice President Gerald Ford was sworn in as President.
Watergate Scandal stands as an event during which the
public trust of government dropped forever.
Section 4: The Ford Administration
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Ford faced the difficult task of restoring the public’s
confidence in the government.
Gerald Ford
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Popular football star from
University of Michigan; won
national championships in
1932 & 33.
Served in the navy during
WWII
Served in the House of
Representatives, becoming
Minority leader in 1965.
Hard worker, appeared
honest and self-reliant.
Recovery from Watergate
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Ford recognized his greatest
challenge would be winning
back society’s faith in
government.
“The years of suspicion and scandal that
had culminated in Nixon’s resignation had
demoralized our people. They had lost
faith in their elected leaders and in their
institutions. I knew that unless I did
something to restore their trust, I couldn’t
win their consent to do anything else.”
–Gerald Ford
Ford Takes Office
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Gerald Ford became the first
nonelected President.
Appointed Vice President
after Spiro Agnew resigned.
Ford experienced a relatively
warm acceptance to the
White House.
Washington hoped Ford was
the one who could redeem
the Presidency.
Nixon Pardoned
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One month after Ford became President, he pardoned
Nixon for “all offenses” he might have committed.
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The pardon angered many.
Some suspected a bargain between the two had been made.
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Many Nixon staffers faced jail time, as he walked free.
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Recession
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Months of preoccupation with Watergate
distracted Nixon from economic recession.
In 1974, inflation was 11 percent and
unemployment 7 percent.
High unemployment and inflation = stagflation
Conflict with Congress
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Ford believed in limited government
Democratic-controlled Congress wanted increased
government programs and spending.
Ford frequently vetoed bills to fund new programs, and
Congress frequently overrode the vetoes.
South Vietnam Falls
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In 1975, as South Vietnam seemed about to fall, Ford
asked for military aid to help.
Congress rejected based on the War Power Act, passed
in 1973
War Powers Act stated that President can’t commit
troops without Congressional approval.
Evacuation
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Ford did agree to send an American airlift to evacuate
thousands of Americans and Vietnamese from Saigon.
Helsinki Accords
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President Ford signed the
Helsinki Accords in 1975.
The U.S., Canada, Soviet
Union, and 30 European
countries pledge to
cooperate economically,
respect national
boundaries, and promote
human rights.
Ford also continued
Strategic Arms Limitation
Talks (SALT) with the
Soviet Union.
Bicentennial
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On July 4, 1976, there was a nationwide
celebration for the 200th anniversary of the
Declaration of Independence.
There were huge parades, concerts, air shows, and
fireworks throughout the country.
Section 5: Carter Administration
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Jimmy Carter had strong ideals but had difficulty
implementing them in Washington. Ultimately, his presidency
was tainted by a hostage situation in Iran.
Jimmy Carter
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Carter was a southerner;
came from a family of
peanut farmers in rural
Georgia.
He worked the family
business before entering
politics and becoming the
governor of Georgia in 1970.
A born-again Baptist, deeply
religious, but tolerant of
others.
Carter
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People liked Carter’s
personable, southern
personality.
He and his family shunned
the status symbols of the
presidency; limousines,
trumpeted entrances.
Society liked his lack of
connections in Washington
after the corruption of
Nixon.
The Economy
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His lack of Washington experience hurt
him in office and he struggled to pass
legislation.
When he cut federal spending to stop
inflation, unemployment increased and he
angered liberal democrats by cutting social
programs.
Energy
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OPEC steadily raised prices throughout the 70s and Carter
believed major energy conservation was necessary.
In 1978 he passed the National Energy Act
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Tax sales of inefficient, “gas guzzling,” cars.
Use fuels other than oil or natural gas for utilities.
Provide tax credits to homeowners using solar energy or insulation.
Fund research for alternative energy sources.
Three Mile Island
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Nuclear power seemed a promising alternative energy.
In 1979, TMI, near Harrisburg, PA, had a partial meltdown.
Over 140,000 people fled their homes.
The story shocked the world and greatly diminished the
push for nuclear power.
Civil Rights
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Carter granted amnesty, pardon, to those
who had evaded the draft during Vietnam.
Carter’s staff included many more women
and minorities than former
administrations.
Camp David Accords
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In 1977, Egypt’s President
went to negotiate with
Israel’s Prime Minister.
The two had major conflicts
and had problems
compromising.
Carter invited them both to
Camp David to talk things
out.
Carter demonstrated
diplomacy and peacemaking
by mediating peace terms.
Camp David Accords
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Under a new treaty, the Camp David Accords…
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Israel would withdraw from the Sinai peninsula.
Egypt would become the first Arab country to
recognize Israel’s existence.
Soviet Relations
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Carter supported Soviet dissidents, critics
of government, and believed they had the
right to speak out.
This angered Soviet leaders, leading to
tension.
Soviets invade Afghanistan
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In 1979, Carter and
Brezhnev signed SALT II.
Within months, the USSR
invaded Afghanistan to
support a government
they backed.
The U.S. and U.N. both
issued warnings to the
Soviets, imposed
embargos on goods, and
boycotted the 1980
Moscow Olympic Games.
Détente was over.
Iran Hostage Crisis
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In 1979, Iran had a
revolution and became an
Islamic theocracy- ruled by
religious leaders.
The U.S. had supported the
former king of Iran who
was a pro-West,
modernizing force.
He was replaced by an
Islamic leader, the
Ayatollah Khomeini.
Iran Hostage Crisis
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The new Iranian theocracy was a strict Islamic state, and
opposed to the U.S.
In November, 1979, Iranians seized the American
embassy and took American embassy workers hostage.
For 444 days, 52 embassy workers were taken hostage.
Iran Hostage Crisis
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Americans were impatient for the hostages’ release.
Carter tried cutting off Iranian assets in the U.S.
Tried a rescue mission that failed, two aircraft collided
and killed 8 U.S. soldiers.
Carter’s popularity plummeted.
1980 Election
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With low popularity, Carter seemed unlikely to win in 1980.
Republican Ronald Reagan won the election.
After months of secret talks, Iranians released the hostages
the day Carter left office.
Carter was sent to greet them at a U.S. military base in
West Germany.