Response to Intervention
RTI: Giving the
Classroom Teacher the
Necessary Tools to
Serve as an
Intervention ‘First
Responder’
Jim Wright
www.interventioncentral.org
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Response to Intervention
Workshop Agenda
Writing Clear, Specific Student Academic &
Behavioral Problem Identification Statements
Review of Selected Tier 1 (Classroom)
Instruction and Intervention Ideas
Review of Classroom-Friendly Methods of
Progress-Monitoring
Discussion About Free Internet Resources to
Help Teachers to Be Intervention ‘First
Responders’
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Response to Intervention
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Response to Intervention
RTI ‘Pyramid of
Interventions’
Tier 3
Tier 2
Tier 1
Tier 3: Intensive interventions.
Students who are ‘nonresponders’ to Tiers 1 & 2 are
referred to the RTI Team for more
intensive interventions.
Tier 2 Individualized
interventions. Subset of
students receive interventions
targeting specific needs.
Tier 1: Universal interventions.
Available to all students in a
classroom or school. Can consist
of whole-group or individual
strategies or supports.
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Response to Intervention
Source: New York State Education Department. (October 2010). Response to Intervention: Guidance for New York State
School Districts. Retrieved November 10, 2010, from http://www.p12.nysed.gov/specialed/RTI/guidance-oct10.pdf; p. 12
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Response to Intervention
Tier 1 Core Instruction
Tier I core instruction:
• Is universal—available to all students.
• Can be delivered within classrooms or throughout the school.
• Is an ongoing process of developing strong classroom instructional
practices to reach the largest number of struggling learners.
All children have access to Tier 1 instruction/interventions. Teachers have
the capability to use those strategies without requiring outside assistance.
Tier 1 instruction encompasses:
• The school’s core curriculum.
• All published or teacher-made materials used to deliver that curriculum.
• Teacher use of ‘whole-group’ teaching & management strategies.
Tier I instruction addresses this question: Are strong classroom instructional
strategies sufficient to help the student to achieve academic success?
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Response to Intervention
Tier I (Classroom) Intervention
Tier 1 intervention:
• Targets ‘red flag’ students who are not successful with core
instruction alone.
• Uses ‘evidence-based’ strategies to address student academic
or behavioral concerns.
• Must be feasible to implement given the resources available in
the classroom.
Tier I intervention addresses the question: Does the student make
adequate progress when the instructor uses specific academic
or behavioral strategies matched to the presenting concern?
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Response to Intervention
The Key Role of Classroom Teachers as
‘Interventionists’ in RTI: 6 Steps
1. The teacher defines the student academic or behavioral
problem clearly.
2. The teacher decides on the best explanation for why the
problem is occurring.
3. The teacher selects ‘evidence-based’ interventions.
4. The teacher documents the student’s Tier 1 intervention plan.
5. The teacher monitors the student’s response (progress) to the
intervention plan.
6. The teacher knows what the next steps are when a student fails
to make adequate progress with Tier 1 interventions alone.
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Response to Intervention
RTI & Intervention: Key Concepts
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Response to Intervention
Core Instruction, Interventions, Accommodations
& Modifications: Sorting Them Out
• Core Instruction. Those instructional strategies that
are used routinely with all students in a generaleducation setting are considered ‘core instruction’.
High-quality instruction is essential and forms the
foundation of RTI academic support. NOTE: While it is
important to verify that good core instructional practices
are in place for a struggling student, those routine
practices do not ‘count’ as individual student
interventions.
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Response to Intervention
Core Instruction, Interventions, Accommodations
& Modifications: Sorting Them Out
• Intervention. An academic intervention is a strategy
used to teach a new skill, build fluency in a skill, or
encourage a child to apply an existing skill to new
situations or settings. An intervention can be thought of
as “a set of actions that, when taken, have
demonstrated ability to change a fixed educational
trajectory” (Methe & Riley-Tillman, 2008; p. 37).
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Response to Intervention
Core Instruction, Interventions, Accommodations
& Modifications: Sorting Them Out
• Accommodation. An accommodation is intended to help
the student to fully access and participate in the generaleducation curriculum without changing the instructional
content and without reducing the student’s rate of learning
(Skinner, Pappas & Davis, 2005). An accommodation is
intended to remove barriers to learning while still expecting
that students will master the same instructional content as
their typical peers.
– Accommodation example 1: Students are allowed to supplement
silent reading of a novel by listening to the book on tape.
– Accommodation example 2: For unmotivated students, the
instructor breaks larger assignments into smaller ‘chunks’ and
providing students with performance feedback and praise for each
completed ‘chunk’ of assigned work (Skinner, Pappas & Davis,
2005).
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Response to Intervention
“
“Teaching is giving; it
isn’t taking away.”
”
(Howell, Hosp & Kurns, 2008; p. 356).
Source: Howell, K. W., Hosp, J. L., & Kurns, S. (2008). Best practices in curriculum-based evaluation. In A. Thomas & J.
Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology V (pp.349-362). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School
Psychologists..
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Response to Intervention
Core Instruction, Interventions, Accommodations &
Modifications: Sorting Them Out
• Modification. A modification changes the expectations of
what a student is expected to know or do—typically by
lowering the academic standards against which the student
is to be evaluated.
Examples of modifications:
– Giving a student five math computation problems for practice
instead of the 20 problems assigned to the rest of the class
– Letting the student consult course notes during a test when peers
are not permitted to do so
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Response to Intervention
Good Behavior Game
(Barrish, Saunders, & Wold, 1969)
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Response to Intervention
Sample Classroom Management Strategy: Good Behavior Game
(Barrish,
Saunders, & Wold, 1969)
The Good Behavior Game is a whole-class intervention to improve student
attending and academic engagement. It is best used during structured class
time: for example, whole-group instruction or periods of independent
seatwork
Description: The class is divided into two or more student teams. The
teacher defines a small set of 2 to 3 negative behaviors. When a student
shows a problem behavior, the teacher assigns a negative behavior ‘point’
to that student’s team. At the end of the Game time period, any team whose
number of points falls below a ‘cut-off’ set by the teacher earns a daily
reward or privilege.
Guidelines for using this intervention: The Game is ideal to use with the
entire class during academic study or lecture periods to keep students
academically engaged The Game is not suitable for less-structured activities
such as cooperative learning groups, where students are expected to
interact with each other as part of the work assignment.
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Response to Intervention
Good Behavior Game: Steps
1.
The instructor decides when to schedule the Game. (NOTE:
Generally, the Good Behavior Game should be used for no
more than 45 to 60 minutes per day to maintain its
effectiveness.)
2. The instructor defines the 2-3 negative behaviors that will be
scored during the Game. Most teachers use these 3
categories:
• Talking Out: The student talks, calls out, or otherwise
verbalizes without teacher permission.
• Out of Seat: The student’s posterior is not on the seat.
• Disruptive Behavior: The student engages in any other
behavior that the instructor finds distracting or problematic.
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Response to Intervention
Good Behavior Game: Steps
3.
4.
5.
The instructor selects a daily reward to be awarded to each
member of successful student teams. (HINT: Try to select
rewards that are inexpensive or free. For example, student
winners might be given a coupon permitting them to skip one
homework item that night.)
The instructor divides the class into 2 or more teams.
The instructor selects a daily cut-off level that represents the
maximum number of points that a team is allowed (e.g., 5
points).
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Response to Intervention
Good Behavior Game: Steps
6.
When the Game is being played, the instructor teaches in the usual
manner. Whenever the instructor observes student misbehavior
during the lesson, the instructor silently assigns a point to that
student’s team (e.g., as a tally mark on the board) and continues to
teach.
7. When the Game period is over, the teacher tallies each team’s
points. Here are the rules for deciding the winner(s) of the Game:
• Any team whose point total is at or below the pre-determined
cut-off earns the daily reward. (NOTE: This means that more
than one team can win!)
• If one team’s point total is above the cut-off level, that team
does not earn a reward.
• If ALL teams have point totals that EXCEED the cut-off level for
that day, only the team with the LOWEST number of points
wins.
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Response to Intervention
Good Behavior Game: Troubleshooting
Here are some tips for using the Good Behavior Game:
•
Avoid the temptation to overuse the Game. Limit its use to no more
than 45 minutes to an hour per day.
•
If a student engages in repeated bad behavior to sabotage a team
and cause it to lose, you can create an additional ‘team of one’ that
has only one member--the misbehaving student. This student can
still participate in the Game but is no longer able to spoil the Game
for peers!
•
If the Game appears to be losing effectiveness, check to be sure it is
being implemented with care and that you are:
– Assigning points consistently when you observe misbehavior.
– Not allowing yourself to be pulled into arguments with students
when you assign points for misbehavior.
– Reliably giving rewards to Game winners.
– Not overusing the Game.
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Response to Intervention
Good Behavior Game
Team 1
Cut-Off=2
Team 2 Game Over
[Out of Seat]
[Disruptive]
[Call Out]
Answer:
teams
won
thethis
Game,
as both teams’ point totals fell
Question:Both
Which
team
won
Game?
BELOW the cut-off of 5 points.
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Response to Intervention
Promoting Student
Reading
Comprehension ‘FixUp’ Skills
Jim Wright
www.interventioncentral.org
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Response to Intervention
Reading Comprehension ‘Fix-Up’ Skills: A Toolkit
Good readers continuously monitor their understanding of
informational text. When necessary, they also take steps to
improve their understanding of text through use of reading
comprehension ‘fix-up’ skills.
Presented here are a series of fix-up skill strategies that can
help struggling students to better understand difficult reading
assignments…
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Response to Intervention
Reading Comprehension ‘Fix-Up’ Skills: A Toolkit (Cont.)
• [Core Instruction] Providing Main Idea Practice through
‘Partner Retell’ (Carnine & Carnine, 2004). Students in a
group or class are assigned a text selection to read silently.
Students are then paired off, with one student assigned the
role of ‘reteller’ and the other appointed as ‘listener’. The
reteller recounts the main idea to the listener, who can
comment or ask questions. The teacher then states the main
idea to the class. Next, the reteller locates two key details from
the reading that support the main idea and shares these with
the listener. At the end of the activity, the teacher does a spot
check by randomly calling on one or more students in the
listener role and asking them to recap what information was
shared by the reteller.
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Response to Intervention
Reading Comprehension ‘Fix-Up’ Skills: A Toolkit (Cont.)
• [Accommodation] Developing a Bank of Multiple Passages
to Present Challenging Concepts (Hedin & Conderman,
2010; Kamil et al., 2008; Texas Reading Initiative, 2002). The
teacher notes which course concepts, cognitive strategies, or
other information will likely present the greatest challenge to
students. For these ‘challenge’ topics, the teacher selects
alternative readings that present the same general information
and review the same key vocabulary as the course text but that
are more accessible to struggling readers (e.g., with selections
written at an easier reading level or that use graphics to
visually illustrate concepts). These alternative selections are
organized into a bank that students can access as a source of
‘wide reading’ material.
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Response to Intervention
Reading Comprehension ‘Fix-Up’ Skills: A Toolkit (Cont.)
• [Student Strategy] Promoting Understanding & Building
Endurance through Reading-Reflection Pauses (Hedin &
Conderman, 2010). The student decides on a reading interval
(e.g., every four sentences; every 3 minutes; at the end of
each paragraph). At the end of each interval, the student
pauses briefly to recall the main points of the reading. If the
student has questions or is uncertain about the content, the
student rereads part or all of the section just read. This
strategy is useful both for students who need to monitor their
understanding as well as those who benefit from brief breaks
when engaging in intensive reading as a means to build up
endurance as attentive readers.
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Response to Intervention
Reading Comprehension ‘Fix-Up’ Skills: A Toolkit (Cont.)
• [Student Strategy] Identifying or Constructing Main Idea
Sentences (Davey & McBride, 1986; Rosenshine, Meister &
Chapman, 1996). For each paragraph in an assigned reading,
the student either (a) highlights the main idea sentence or (b)
highlights key details and uses them to write a ‘gist’ sentence.
The student then writes the main idea of that paragraph on an
index card. On the other side of the card, the student writes a
question whose answer is that paragraph’s main idea
sentence. This stack of ‘main idea’ cards becomes a useful
tool to review assigned readings.
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Response to Intervention
Reading Comprehension ‘Fix-Up’ Skills: A Toolkit (Cont.)
• [Student Strategy] Restructuring Paragraphs with Main Idea
First to Strengthen ‘Rereads’ (Hedin & Conderman, 2010).
The student highlights or creates a main idea sentence for
each paragraph in the assigned reading. When rereading each
paragraph of the selection, the student (1) reads the main idea
sentence or student-generated ‘gist’ sentence first (irrespective
of where that sentence actually falls in the paragraph); (2)
reads the remainder of the paragraph, and (3) reflects on how
the main idea relates to the paragraph content.
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Response to Intervention
Reading Comprehension ‘Fix-Up’ Skills: A Toolkit (Cont.)
• [Student Strategy] Summarizing Readings (Boardman et al.,
2008). The student is taught to summarize readings into main
ideas and essential details--stripped of superfluous content.
The act of summarizing longer readings can promote
understanding and retention of content while the summarized
text itself can be a useful study tool.
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Response to Intervention
Reading Comprehension ‘Fix-Up’ Skills: A Toolkit (Cont.)
• [Student Strategy] Linking Pronouns to Referents (Hedin &
Conderman, 2010). Some readers lose the connection
between pronouns and the nouns that they refer to (known as
‘referents’)—especially when reading challenging text. The
student is encouraged to circle pronouns in the reading, to
explicitly identify each pronoun’s referent, and (optionally) to
write next to the pronoun the name of its referent. For example,
the student may add the referent to a pronoun in this sentence
from a biology text: “The Cambrian Period is the first geological
age that has large numbers of multi-celled organisms
associated with it Cambrian Period.”
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Response to Intervention
Reading Comprehension ‘Fix-Up’ Skills: A Toolkit (Cont.)
• Student Strategy] Apply Vocabulary ‘Fix-Up’ Skills for
Unknown Words (Klingner & Vaughn, 1999). When
confronting an unknown word in a reading selection, the
student applies the following vocabulary ‘fix-up’ skills:
1. Read the sentence again.
2. Read the sentences before and after the problem
sentence for clues to the word’s meaning.
3. See if there are prefixes or suffixes in the word that can
give clues to meaning.
4. Break the word up by syllables and look for ‘smaller words’
within.
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Response to Intervention
Reading Comprehension ‘Fix-Up’ Skills: A Toolkit (Cont.)
• [Student Strategy] Compiling a Vocabulary Journal from
Course Readings (Hedin & Conderman, 2010). The student
highlights new or unfamiliar vocabulary from course readings.
The student writes each term into a vocabulary journal, using a
standard ‘sentence-stem’ format: e.g., “Mitosis means…” or “A
chloroplast is…”. If the student is unable to generate a
definition for a vocabulary term based on the course reading,
he or she writes the term into the vocabulary journal without
definition and then applies other strategies to define the term:
e.g., look up the term in a dictionary; use Google to locate two
examples of the term being used correctly in context; ask the
instructor, etc.).
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Response to Intervention
Reading Comprehension ‘Fix-Up’ Skills: A Toolkit (Cont.)
• [Student Strategy] Encouraging Student Use of Text
Enhancements (Hedin & Conderman, 2010). Text
enhancements can be used to tag important vocabulary terms,
key ideas, or other reading content. If working with
photocopied material, the student can use a highlighter to note
key ideas or vocabulary. Another enhancement strategy is the
‘lasso and rope’ technique—using a pen or pencil to circle a
vocabulary term and then drawing a line that connects that
term to its underlined definition. If working from a textbook, the
student can cut sticky notes into strips. These strips can be
inserted in the book as pointers to text of interest. They can
also be used as temporary labels—e.g., for writing a
vocabulary term and its definition.
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Response to Intervention
Reading Comprehension ‘Fix-Up’ Skills: A Toolkit (Cont.)
• [Student Strategy] Reading Actively Through Text
Annotation (Harris, 1990; Sarkisian et al., 2003). Students are
likely to increase their retention of information when they
interact actively with their reading by jotting comments in the
margin of the text. Using photocopies, the student is taught to
engage in an ongoing 'conversation' with the writer by
recording a running series of brief comments in the margins of
the text. The student may write annotations to record opinions
about points raised by the writer, questions triggered by the
reading, or unknown vocabulary words.
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Response to Intervention
‘Defensive Behavior
Management’: The Power
of Teacher Preparation
Jim Wright
www.interventioncentral.org
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Response to Intervention
Defensive Management: A Method to Avoid Power
Struggles
‘Defensive management’ (Fields, 2004) is a teacherfriendly six-step approach to avert student-teacher
power struggles that emphasizes providing proactive
instructional support to the student, elimination of
behavioral triggers in the classroom setting,
relationship-building, strategic application of defusing
techniques when needed, and use of a ‘reconnection’
conference after behavioral incidents to promote
student reflection and positive behavior change.
Source: Fields, B. (2004). Breaking the cycle of office referrals and suspensions: Defensive management. Educational
Psychology in Practice, 20, 103-115.
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Response to Intervention
Defensive Management: Six Steps
1. Understanding the Problem and Using Proactive
Strategies. The teacher collects information--through
direct observation and perhaps other means--about
specific instances of student problem behavior and the
instructional components and other factors
surrounding them. The teacher analyzes this
information to discover specific ‘trigger’ events that
seem to set off the problem behavior(s) (e.g., lack of
skills; failure to understand directions).
The instructor then adjusts instruction to provide
appropriate student support (e.g., providing the
student with additional instruction in a skill; repeating
directions and writing them on the board).
Source: Fields, B. (2004). Breaking the cycle of office referrals and suspensions: Defensive management. Educational
Psychology in Practice, 20, 103-115.
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Response to Intervention
Defensive Management: Six Steps
2. Promoting Positive Teacher-Student Interactions.
Early in each class session, the teacher has at least
one positive verbal interaction with the student.
Throughout the class period, the teacher continues to
interact in positive ways with the student (e.g., brief
conversation, smile, thumbs up, praise comment after
a student remark in large-group discussion, etc.). In
each interaction, the teacher adopts a genuinely
accepting, polite, respectful tone.
Source: Fields, B. (2004). Breaking the cycle of office referrals and suspensions: Defensive management. Educational
Psychology in Practice, 20, 103-115.
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Response to Intervention
Defensive Management: Six Steps
3. Scanning for Warning Indicators. During the class
session, the teacher monitors the target student’s
behavior for any behavioral indicators suggesting that
the student is becoming frustrated or angry. Examples
of behaviors that precede non-compliance or open
defiance may include stopping work; muttering or
complaining; becoming argumentative; interrupting
others; leaving his or her seat; throwing objects, etc.).
Source: Fields, B. (2004). Breaking the cycle of office referrals and suspensions: Defensive management. Educational
Psychology in Practice, 20, 103-115.
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Response to Intervention
Defensive Management: Six Steps
4. Exercising Emotional Restraint. Whenever the student
begins to display problematic behaviors, the teacher
makes an active effort to remain calm. To actively monitor
his or her emotional state, the teacher tracks physiological
cues such as increased muscle tension and heart rate, as
well as fear, annoyance, anger, or other negative
emotions. The teacher also adopts calming or relaxation
strategies that work for him or her in the face of
provocative student behavior, such as taking a deep
breath or counting to 10 before responding.
Source: Fields, B. (2004). Breaking the cycle of office referrals and suspensions: Defensive management. Educational
Psychology in Practice, 20, 103-115.
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Response to Intervention
Defensive Management: Six Steps
5. Using Defusing Tactics. If the student begins to escalate
to non-compliant, defiant, or confrontational behavior (e.g.,
arguing, threatening, other intentional verbal interruptions),
the teacher draws from a range of possible descalating
strategies to defuse the situation. Such strategies can
include private conversation with the student while
maintaining a calm voice, open-ended questions,
paraphrasing the student’s concerns, acknowledging the
student’s emotions, etc.
Source: Fields, B. (2004). Breaking the cycle of office referrals and suspensions: Defensive management. Educational
Psychology in Practice, 20, 103-115.
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Response to Intervention
Defensive Management: Six Steps
6. Reconnecting with The Student. Soon after any in-class
incident of student non-compliance, defiance, or
confrontation, the teacher makes a point to meet with the
student to discuss the behavioral incident, identify the
triggers in the classroom environment that led to the
problem, and brainstorm with the student to create a
written plan to prevent the reoccurrence of such an
incident. Throughout this conference, the teacher
maintains a supportive, positive, polite, and respectful
tone.
Source: Fields, B. (2004). Breaking the cycle of office referrals and suspensions: Defensive management. Educational
Psychology in Practice, 20, 103-115.
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Response to Intervention
Defining Student Problem
Behaviors: A Key to
Identifying Effective
Interventions p. 70
Jim Wright
www.interventioncentral.org
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Response to Intervention
Create a Problem Behavior Identification
Statement
• At your tables:
– Discuss students whose behaviors pose a challenge
in your classroom or school.
– Select one of those students discussed.
– For that student, write down a ‘problem identification
statement’ that describes the problem behavior.
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Response to Intervention
Defining Problem Student Behaviors…
1.
Define the problem behavior in clear, observable, measurable
terms (Batsche et al., 2008; Upah, 2008). Write a clear description of
the problem behavior. Avoid vague problem identification statements
such as “The student is disruptive.”
A well-written problem definition should include three parts:
– Conditions. The condition(s) under which the problem is likely to
occur
– Problem Description. A specific description of the problem behavior
– Contextual information. Information about the frequency, intensity,
duration, or other dimension(s) of the behavior that provide a
context for estimating the degree to which the behavior presents a
problem in the setting(s) in which it occurs.
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Response to Intervention
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Response to Intervention
Defining Student Problem Behaviors:
Team Activity
Using the student selected
by your team:
• Step 1: Define the
problem behavior in
clear, observable,
measurable terms.
Five Steps in Understanding &
Addressing Problem Behaviors:
1. Define the problem behavior
in clear, observable,
measurable terms.
2. Develop examples and nonexamples of the problem
behavior.
3. Write a behavior hypothesis
statement.
4. Select a replacement behavior.
5. Write a prediction statement.
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Response to Intervention
Defining Problem Student Behaviors…
2. Develop examples and non-examples of the problem
behavior (Upah, 2008). Writing both examples and nonexamples of the problem behavior helps to resolve uncertainty
about when the student’s conduct should be classified as a
problem behavior. Examples should include the most frequent
or typical instances of the student problem behavior. Nonexamples should include any behaviors that are acceptable
conduct but might possibly be confused with the problem
behavior.
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Response to Intervention
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Response to Intervention
Defining Student Problem Behaviors:
Team Activity
Using the student selected
by your team:
• Step 2: Develop
examples and nonexamples of the
problem behavior.
Five Steps in Understanding &
Addressing Problem Behaviors:
1. Define the problem behavior in
clear, observable, measurable
terms.
2. Develop examples and nonexamples of the problem
behavior.
3. Write a behavior hypothesis
statement.
4. Select a replacement behavior.
5. Write a prediction statement.
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Response to Intervention
Defining Problem Student Behaviors…
3. Write a behavior hypothesis statement (Batsche et al.,
2008; Upah, 2008). The next step in problem-solving is to
develop a hypothesis about why the student is engaging in an
undesirable behavior or not engaging in a desired behavior.
Teachers can gain information to develop a hypothesis
through direct observation, student interview, review of
student work products, and other sources. The behavior
hypothesis statement is important because (a) it can be
tested, and (b) it provides guidance on the type(s) of
interventions that might benefit the student.
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Response to Intervention
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Response to Intervention
Defining Student Problem Behaviors:
Team Activity
Using the student selected
by your team:
• Step 3: Write a
behavior hypothesis
statement.
Five Steps in Understanding &
Addressing Problem Behaviors:
1. Define the problem behavior in
clear, observable, measurable
terms.
2. Develop examples and nonexamples of the problem
behavior.
3. Write a behavior hypothesis
statement.
4. Select a replacement behavior.
5. Write a prediction statement.
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Response to Intervention
Defining Problem Student Behaviors…
4. Select a replacement behavior (Batsche et al., 2008).
Behavioral interventions should be focused on increasing
student skills and capacities, not simply on suppressing
problem behaviors. By selecting a positive behavioral goal
that is an appropriate replacement for the student’s original
problem behavior, the teacher reframes the student concern in
a manner that allows for more effective intervention planning.
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Response to Intervention
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Response to Intervention
Defining Student Problem Behaviors:
Team Activity
Using the student selected
by your team:
• Step 4: Select a
replacement behavior.
Five Steps in Understanding &
Addressing Problem Behaviors:
1. Define the problem behavior in
clear, observable, measurable
terms.
2. Develop examples and nonexamples of the problem
behavior.
3. Write a behavior hypothesis
statement.
4. Select a replacement behavior.
5. Write a prediction statement.
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Response to Intervention
Defining Problem Student Behaviors…
5. Write a prediction statement (Batsche et al., 2008; Upah,
2008). The prediction statement proposes a strategy
(intervention) that is predicted to improve the problem
behavior. The importance of the prediction statement is that it
spells out specifically the expected outcome if the strategy is
successful. The formula for writing a prediction statement is to
state that if the proposed strategy (‘Specific Action’) is
adopted, then the rate of problem behavior is expected to
decrease or increase in the desired direction.
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Response to Intervention
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Response to Intervention
Defining Student Problem Behaviors:
Team Activity
Using the student selected
by your team:
• Step 5: Write a
prediction statement.
Five Steps in Understanding &
Addressing Problem Behaviors:
1. Define the problem behavior in
clear, observable, measurable
terms.
2. Develop examples and nonexamples of the problem
behavior.
3. Write a behavior hypothesis
statement.
4. Select a replacement behavior.
5. Write a prediction statement.
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Response to Intervention
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Response to Intervention
Team Activity:
Planning for ‘Next Steps’
At your tables:
• Consider the 5-step framework that was just reviewed
for identifying student behavior problems.
• Create the first steps of a plan to share this framework
with teachers in your school to help them to better solve
student problems.
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Response to Intervention
Methods of Classroom Data
Collection
Jim Wright
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Response to Intervention
Classroom Data Collection
Existing data. The teacher uses information already
being collected in the classroom or school that is
relevant to the identified student problem.
Examples of existing data include:
–
–
–
–
grades
attendance/tardy records,
office disciplinary referrals
homework completion
• NOTE: Existing data is often not sufficient alone to
monitor a student on intervention but can be a useful
supplemental source of data on academic or behavioral
performance.
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Response to Intervention
Existing Data: Example
Example: Mrs. Berman, a high-school social studies
teacher, selected grades from weekly quizzes as one
measure to determine if a study-skills intervention would
help Rick, a student in her class. Prior to the
intervention, the teacher computed the average of
Rick’s most recent 4 quiz grades. The baseline
average quiz grade for Rick was 61. Mrs. Smith set an
average quiz grade of 75 as the intervention goal. The
teacher decided that at the intervention check-up in six
weeks, she would average the most recent 2 weekly
quiz grades to see if the student reached the goal.
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Response to Intervention
Classroom Data Collection
Global skill checklist. The teacher selects a global skill
(e.g., homework completion; independent seatwork). The
teacher then breaks the global skill down into a checklist
of component sub-skills--a process known as ‘discrete
categorization’ (Kazdin, 1989). An observer (e.g., teacher,
another adult, or even the student) can then use the
checklist to note whether a student successfully displays
each of the sub-skills on a given day. Classroom teachers
can use these checklists as convenient tools to assess
whether a student has the minimum required range of
academic enabling skills for classroom success.
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Response to Intervention
Global Skills Checklist: Example
• Example: A middle school math instructor, Mr. Haverneck, was
concerned that a student, Rodney, appears to have poor ‘organization
skills’. Mr. Haverneck created a checklist of observable subskills that, in
his opinion, were part of the global term ‘organization skills:
– arriving to class on time;
– bringing work materials to class;
– following teacher directions in a timely manner;
– knowing how to request teacher assistance when needed;
– having an uncluttered desk with only essential work materials.
Mr. Havernick monitored the student’s compliance with elements of this
organization -skills checklist across three days of math class. On
average, Rodney successfully carried out only 2 of the 5 possible
subskills (baseline). Mr. Havernick set the goal that by the last week of a
5-week intervention, the student would be found to use all five of the
subskills on at least 4 out of 5 days.
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Response to Intervention
‘Academic Enabler’ Observational Checklists:
Measuring Students’ Ability to Manage Their
Own Learning
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Response to Intervention
‘Academic Enabler’ Skills: Why Are They Important?
Student academic success requires more than content
knowledge or mastery of a collection of cognitive
strategies. Academic accomplishment depends also on
a set of ancillary skills and attributes called ‘academic
enablers’ (DiPerna, 2006). Examples of academic
enablers include:
–
–
–
–
–
Study skills
Homework completion
Cooperative learning skills
Organization
Independent seatwork
Source: DiPerna, J. C. (2006). Academic enablers and student achievement: Implications for assessment and intervention
services in the schools. Psychology in the Schools, 43, 7-17.
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Response to Intervention
‘Academic Enabler’ Skills: Why Are They Important? (Cont.)
Because academic enablers are often described as
broad skill sets, however, they can be challenging to
define in clear, specific, measureable terms. A useful
method for defining a global academic enabling skill is
to break it down into a checklist of component subskills--a process known as ‘discrete categorization’
(Kazdin, 1989). An observer can then use the checklist
to note whether a student successfully displays each of
the sub-skills.
Source: Kazdin, A. E. (1989). Behavior modification in applied settings (4th ed.). Pacific Gove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
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Response to Intervention
‘Academic Enabler’ Skills: Why Are They Important? (Cont.)
Observational checklists that define academic enabling skills
have several uses in Response to Intervention:
– Classroom teachers can use these skills checklists as convenient
tools to assess whether a student possesses the minimum ‘starter
set’ of academic enabling skills needed for classroom success.
– Teachers or tutors can share examples of academic-enabler skills
checklists with students, training them in each of the sub-skills and
encouraging them to use the checklists independently to take
greater responsibility for their own learning.
– Teachers or other observers can use the academic enabler
checklists periodically to monitor student progress during
interventions--assessing formatively whether the student is using
more of the sub-skills.
Source: Kazdin, A. E. (1989). Behavior modification in applied settings (4th ed.). Pacific Gove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
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Response to Intervention
‘Academic Enabler’ Skills: Sample Observational Checklists
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Response to Intervention
‘Academic Enabler’ Skills: Sample Observational Checklists
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Response to Intervention
‘Academic Enabler’ Skills: Sample Observational Checklists
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Response to Intervention
‘Academic Enabler’ Skills: Sample Observational Checklists
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Response to Intervention
‘Academic Enabler’ Skills: Sample Observational Checklists
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Response to Intervention
‘Academic Enabler’ Skills: Sample Observational Checklists
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Response to Intervention
‘Academic Enabler’ Skills: Sample Observational Checklists
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Response to Intervention
Activity: Academic Enablers
Observational Checklist
At your tables:
• Review the ‘Academic Enablers’ Observational Checklists.
• Discuss how your school might use the existing examples
or use the general format to create your own observational
checklists.
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Response to Intervention
Classroom Data Collection
• Behavioral Frequency Count/Behavioral Rate. An observer (e.g., the
teacher) watches a student’s behavior and keeps a cumulative tally of the
number of times that the behavior is observed during a given period.
Behaviors that are best measured using frequency counts have clearly
observable beginning and end points—and are of relatively short duration.
– Examples include:
– student call-outs
– requests for teacher help during independent seatwork.
– raising one’s hand to make a contribution to large-group discussion.
Teachers can collect data on the frequency of observed student
behaviors: (1) by keeping a cumulative mental tally of the behaviors; (2)
by recording behaviors on paper (e.g., as tally marks) as they occur; or (3)
using a golf counter or other simple mechanical device to record observed
behaviors.
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Response to Intervention
Behavioral Frequency Count/Behavioral Rate: Example
• Example: Ms. Stimson, a fourth-grade teacher, was concerned at the
frequency that a student, Alice, frequently requested teacher assistance
unnecessarily during independent seatwork. To address this concern, the
teacher designed an intervention in which the student would first try several
steps on her own to resolve issues or answer her questions before seeking
help from the instructor. Prior to starting the intervention, the teacher kept a
behavioral frequency count across three days of the number of times that the
student approached her desk for help during a daily 20-minute independent
seatwork period (baseline).
• Ms. Stimson discovered that, on average, the student sought requested help
8 times per period (equivalent to 0.4 requests for help per minute). Ms.
Stimson set as an intervention goal that, after 4 weeks of using her self-help
strategies, the student’s average rate of requesting help would drop to 1 time
per independent seatwork period (equivalent to 0.05 requests for help per
minute).
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Response to Intervention
Classroom Data Collection
Rating scales. A scale is developed with one or more items
that a rater can use to complete a global rating of a behavior.
Often the rating scale is completed at the conclusion of a fixed
observation period (e.g., after each class period; at the end of
the school day).
NOTE: One widely used example of rating scales routinely
used in classrooms is the daily behavior report (DBR). The
teacher completes a 3- to 4-item rating scale each day
evaluating various target student behaviors. A detailed
description of DBRs appears on the next page, along with a
sample DBR that assesses the student’s interactions with
peers, compliance with adult requests, work completion, and
attention to task.
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Response to Intervention
Monitoring Student Academic or
General Behaviors:
Daily Behavior Report Cards
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Response to Intervention
Daily Behavior Report Cards (DBRCs) Are…
brief forms containing student behavior-rating
items. The teacher typically rates the student daily
(or even more frequently) on the DBRC. The
results can be graphed to document student
response to an intervention.
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Response to Intervention
Daily Behavior Report Cards Can Monitor…
•
•
•
•
•
•
Hyperactivity
On-Task Behavior (Attention)
Work Completion
Organization Skills
Compliance With Adult Requests
Ability to Interact Appropriately With Peers
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Response to Intervention
Daily
Behavior
Report
Card:
Daily
Version
Jim Blalock
Mrs. Williams
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Rm 108
Response to Intervention
Daily
Behavior
Report
Card:
Weekly
Version
Jim Blalock
Mrs. Williams
Rm 108
05 05 07 05 06 07 05 07 07 05 08 07 05 09 07
40
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0
60 60 50
Response to Intervention
Daily Behavior Report Card: Chart
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Response to Intervention
Rating Scales: Example
Example: All of the teachers on a 7th-grade instructional team decided to use
a Daily Behavior Report to monitor classroom interventions for Brian, a
student who presented challenges of inattention, incomplete work, and
occasional non-compliance. They created a DBR with the following items:
• Brian focused his attention on teacher instructions, classroom lessons and
assigned work.
• Brian completed and turned in his assigned class work on time.
• Brian spoke respectfully and complied with adult requests without argument
or complaint.
Each rating items was rated using a 1-9 scale:
On average, Brian scored no higher than 3 (‘Never/Seldom’ range) on all
rating items in all classrooms (baseline). The team set as an intervention
goal that, by the end of a 6-week intervention to be used in all classrooms,
Brian would be rated in the 7-9 range (‘Most/All of the Time’) in all
classrooms.
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Response to Intervention
Activity: Daily Behavior Report
Card
At your tables:
• Discuss the Daily Behavior Report Card as a classroom
monitoring tool.
• How could you use this tool directly or indirectly to measure
aspect(s) of student academic concerns?
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Response to Intervention
Classroom Data Collection
• Academic Skills: Cumulative Mastery Log. During academic
interventions in which the student is presented with specific
items such as math facts or spelling words, the instructor can
track the impact of the intervention by recording and dating
mastered items in a cumulative log.
• To collect baseline information, the instructor reviews all items
from the academic-item set with the student, noting which
items the student already knows. Then, throughout the
intervention, the instructor logs and dates any additional items
that the student masters.
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Response to Intervention
Academic Skills: Cumulative Mastery Log:
Example
Example: Mrs. Ostrowski, a 1st-grade teacher, decides to provide additional
intervention support for Jonah, a student in her class who does not have
fluent letter recognition skills. Before starting an intervention, she inventories
and records Jonah’s baseline skills—noting that Jonah can fluently and
accurately recognize 18 upper-case letters and 14 lower-case letters from the
English alphabet. She sets as an intervention goal that Jonah will master all
remaining items –8 upper-case and 12 lower-case letters—within four weeks.
Mrs. Ostrowski then begins the daily intervention (incremental rehearsal of
letters using flashcards). Whenever Jonah is able fluently and accurately to
name a previously unknown letter, the teacher records and dates that item in
her cumulative mastery log.
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Response to Intervention
Classroom Data Collection
Work Products. Student work products can be collected and
evaluated to judge whether the student is incorporating
information taught in the course, applying cognitive strategies
that they have been taught, or remediating academic delays.
Examples of work products are math computation worksheets,
journal entries, and written responses to end-of-chapter
questions from the course textbook.
Whenever teachers collect academic performance data on a
student, it is recommended that they also assess the
performance of typical peers in the classroom. Work products
can be assessed in several ways, depending on the identified
student problem.
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Response to Intervention
Work Products: Example
• Example: Mrs. Franchione, a social studies teacher, identified her eighthgrade student, Alexandria, as having difficulty with course content. The
student was taught to use question generation as a strategy to better identify
the main ideas in her course readings.
• Mrs. Franchione decided to assess Alexandria’s student journal entries. Each
week, Mrs. Franchione assigned students 5 key vocabulary terms and
directed them to answer a social studies essay question while incorporating
all 5 terms. She also selected 3 typical students to serve as peer
comparisons..
Mrs. Franchione decided to assess Alexandria’s journal entries according to
the following criteria:
• Presence of weekly assigned vocabulary words in the student essay
• Unambiguous, correct use of each assigned vocabulary term in context
• Overall quality of the student essay on a scale of 1 (significantly below peers)
to 4 (significantly above peers).
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Response to Intervention
Work Products: Example (cont.)
• To establish a baseline before starting the intervention, Mrs.
Franchione used the above criteria to evaluate the two most recent
journal entries from Alexandria’s journal—and averaged the
results: 4 of assigned 5 vocabulary terms used; 2 used correctly in
context; essay quality rating of 1.5.
• Peer comparison: all 5 assigned vocabulary terms used; 4 used
correctly in context; average quality rating of 3.2.
Mrs. Franchione set an intervention goal for Alexandria that— by
the end of the 5-week intervention period—the student would
regularly incorporate all five vocabulary terms into her weekly
journal entries, that at least 4 of the five entries would be used
correctly in context, and that the student would attain a quality
rating score of 3.0 or better on the entries.
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Response to Intervention
Activity: Work Products
At your tables:
• Review the form for assessing work products.
• Discuss how your school might be able to use this existing
form or modify it to ‘standardize’ the collection and
evaluation of student work products.
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Response to Intervention
Classroom Data Collection
Behavior Log. Behavior logs are narrative ‘incident
reports’ that the teacher records about problem student
behaviors. The teacher makes a log entry each time that a
behavior is observed. An advantage of behavior logs is that
they can provide information about the context within which
a behavior occurs.(Disciplinary office referrals are a
specialized example of a behavior log.)
Behavior logs are most useful for tracking problem
behaviors that are serious but do not occur frequently.
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Response to Intervention
Behavior Log: Example
• Example: Mrs. Roland, a 6th-grade Science teacher, had difficulty
managing the behavior of a student, Bill. While Bill was often
passively non-compliant, he would occasionally escalate, become
loudly defiant and confrontational, and then be sent to the
principal’s office. Because Mrs. Roland did not fully understand
what factors might be triggering these student outbursts, she
began to keep a behavior log. She recorded instances when Bill’s
behavior would escalate to become confrontational. Mrs. Roland’s
behavior logs noted the date and time of each behavioral outburst,
its duration and severity, what activity the class was engaged in
when Bill’s behavioral outburst occurred, and the disciplinary
outcome. After three weeks, she had logged 4 behavioral
incidents, establishing a baseline of about 1 incident every 3.75
instructional days.
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Response to Intervention
Behavior Log: Example (cont.)
• Mrs. Roland hypothesized that Bill became confrontational to
escape class activities that required him to read aloud within
the hearing of his classmates. As an intervention plan, she
changed class activities to eliminate public readings, matched
Bill to a supportive class ‘buddy’, and also provided Bill with
additional intervention in reading comprehension ‘fix up’ skills.
Mrs. Roland set as an intervention goal that within 4 weeks
Bill’s rate of serious confrontational outbursts would drop to
zero.
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Response to Intervention
Classroom Data Collection
Curriculum-Based Measurement. Curriculum-Based
Measurement (CBM) is a family of brief, timed measures
that assess basic academic skills. CBMs have been
developed to assess phonemic awareness, oral reading
fluency, number sense, math computation, spelling, written
expression and other skills. Among advantages of using
CBM for classroom assessment are that these measures
are quick and efficient to administer; align with the
curriculum of most schools; have good ‘technical adequacy’
as academic assessments; and use standard procedures to
prepare materials, administer, and score (Hosp, Hosp &
Howell, 2007).
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Response to Intervention
Description:
Worksheet contains
either single-skill or
multiple-skill
problems.
CBM Math
Computation
Administration:
Can be administered
to groups (e.g.,
whole class).
Students have 2
minutes to complete
worksheet.
Scoring: Students
get credit for each
correct digit-a
method that is more
sensitive to shortterm student gain.
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Response to Intervention
Curriculum-Based Measurement: Advantages as a Set of Tools to
Monitor RTI/Academic Cases
• Aligns with curriculum-goals and materials
• Is reliable and valid (has ‘technical adequacy’)
• Is criterion-referenced: sets specific performance levels for specific
tasks
• Uses standard procedures to prepare materials, administer, and
score
• Samples student performance to give objective, observable ‘lowinference’ information about student performance
• Has decision rules to help educators to interpret student data and
make appropriate instructional decisions
• Is efficient to implement in schools (e.g., training can be done quickly;
the measures are brief and feasible for classrooms, etc.)
• Provides data that can be converted into visual displays for ease of
communication
Source: Hosp, M.K., Hosp, J. L., & Howell, K. W. (2007). The ABCs of CBM. New York: Guilford.
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Response to Intervention
Among other areas, CBM Techniques
have been developed to assess:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Reading fluency
Reading comprehension
Math computation
Writing
Spelling
Phonemic awareness skills
Early math skills
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Response to Intervention
Curriculum-Based Measurement: Example
Example: Mr. Jackson, a 3rd-grade teacher, decided to use
explicit time drills to help his student, Andy, become more fluent
in his multiplication math facts. Prior to starting the intervention,
Mr. Jackson administered a CBM math computation probe
(single-skill probe; multiplication facts from 0 to 12) on three
consecutive days. Mr. Jackson used the median, or middle,
score from these three assessments as baseline—finding that
the student was able to compute an average of 20 correct digits
in two minutes. He also set a goal that Andy would increase his
computation fluency on multiplication facts by 3 digits per week
across the 5-week intervention, resulting in an intervention
goal of 35 correct digits.
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Response to Intervention
Combining Classroom Monitoring Methods
• Often, methods of classroom data collection and
progress-monitoring can be combined to track a single
student problem.
• Example: A teacher can use a rubric (checklist) to rate
the quality of student work samples.
• Example: A teacher may keep a running tally
(behavioral frequency count) of student callouts. At the
same time, the student may be self-monitoring his rate
of callouts on a Daily Behavior Report Card (rating
scale).
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•
Response to Intervention
Activity: Classroom Methods of Data Collection
Classroom Data Sources:
In your teams: Select one of the
methods of data collection discussed in • Existing data
this section of the workshop that you • Global skill checklist
are most interested in having your
• Behavioral frequency
school adopt or improve.
count/behavior rate
Discuss how you might promote the • Rating scales
use of this data collection method, e.g., • Academic skills:
 Creating assessment materials for
Cumulative mastery log
teachers
• Work products
 Arranging for teacher training
• Behavior log
 Having teachers pilot the method and
• Curriculum-based
provide feedback on how to improve.
measurement
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Setting Up Effective Classroom
Data Collection
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Response to Intervention
The Structure of Data Collection
• Teachers can use a wide variety of methods to
assess student academic performance or behavior.
• However, data collection should be structured to
include these elements: baseline, the setting of a
goal for improvement, and regular progressmonitoring.
• The structure of data collection can be thought of as
a glass into which a wide variety of data can be
‘poured’.
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Response to Intervention
Classroom Data Collection Methods: Examples
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Existing data
Global skill checklist
Behavioral frequency count/behavior rate
Rating scales
Academic skills: Cumulative mastery log
Work products
Behavior log
Curriculum-based measurement
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Response to Intervention
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Response to Intervention
Baseline: Defining the Student Starting Point
• Baseline data provide the teacher with a snapshot of
the student’s academic skills or behavior before the
intervention begins.
• An estimate of baseline is essential in order to measure
at the end of the intervention whether the student made
significant progress.
• Three to five data-points are often recommended—
because student behavior can be variable from day to
day.
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Response to Intervention
Baseline: Using the Median Score
If several data points are collected, the middle, or median,
score can be used to estimate student performance.
Selecting the median can be a good idea when student
data is quite variable.
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Response to Intervention
Baseline: Using the Mean Score
If several data points are collected, an average, or mean,
score can be calculated by adding up all baseline data and
dividing by the number of data points.
13+15+11=39
39 divided by 3=13
Mean = 13
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Response to Intervention
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Response to Intervention
Intervention ‘Timespan’: How Long is Long Enough?
Any intervention should be allowed sufficient time to
demonstrate whether it is effective. The limitation on how
quickly an intervention can be determined to be ‘effective’ is
usually the sensitivity of the measurement tools. As a rule,
behavioral interventions tend to show effects more quickly than
academic interventions—because academic skills take time to
increase, while behavioral change can be quite rapid.
A good rule of thumb for classroom interventions it to allow 4-8
instructional weeks to judge the intervention.
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Response to Intervention
Performance Goal
The outcome goal for an intervention can be estimated in several
ways:
• If there are research academic norms or local norms available
(e.g., DIBELS), these can be useful to set a goal criterion.
• The teacher can screen a classroom to determine average
performance.
• The teacher can select 3-4 ‘typical’ students in the class,
administer an academic measure (e.g., curriculum-based
measurement writing) to calculate a ‘micro-norm’.
• The teacher can rely on ‘expert opinion’ of what is a typical
level of student performance.
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Response to Intervention
End of Grade 1
SOURCE: Good et al. (2002) DIBELS administration and scoring guide. https://dibels.uoregon.edu/measures/files/admin_and_scoring_6th_ed.pdf
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Response to Intervention
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Response to Intervention
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