Vaughn 1
Katie Vaughn
Box # 7883
Senior Seminar II
3 May 2013
Baseball and the Morale of Laymen and Servicemen on the Home front and Overseas during
World War II
The United States of America is a diverse country. In America, people can often be
distinguished by race, culture, religious beliefs, and the region which they live, but there are a
few things that Americans have in common. If one were to ask what the first thing they think
about when someone mentions America, they might say apple pie; freedom; red, white, and blue;
or George Washington. Americans that lived in the early, to mid-twentieth century would
probably say baseball. At some point in history, American citizens were joined together by
baseball. It was something that people had in common. Baseball is referred to as America’s
pastime, and that has been proven by decades of playing the game; it has also been known to
affect the morale of the country in times of struggle.1
When countries are involved in difficult times, they look to something to raise their
spirits. The country as a whole looks to a common theme, activity, person, or goal to provide
stabilization for its people. When the United States became involved in World War II, baseball
captured the role of boosting the morale of the country. Many different aspects of baseball
contributed to raising the morale of the people in America during this time of hardship. Baseball
provided a crutch that people could lean on when they needed entertainment or a simple pick me
up. It seems rather amateur to believe that a game such as baseball could provide stability for a
nation, but for several years in the 1940s, it was exactly what America needed.
1
Donald Honig, “Baseball,” In World Book Advanced Encyclopedia
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There are many things that are beautiful about the game of baseball, and this quote
describes the passion of the game in a nutshell, “The game begins in spring, when everything
else begins again, and it blossoms in summer, filling the afternoons and evenings, and then as
soon as the chill rain comes, it stops and leaves you to face the fall alone.”2 This quote suggests
that there is a parallel between the seasons of the year and baseball. Some would say that each
season is perfect in its own way, and that baseball is too. Of course this is one’s personal
opinion, but there is a plausible argument behind this simple statement.3
Baseball is a game of simplicity. There are also traditions of the game that exemplify
everything that is beautiful about America. One of the many traditions is the playing of the
“National Anthem” and the showing of the colors before the game starts, which started during
World War II. There is also the ceremonial first pitch that is thrown to signify that the game is
underway. Another tradition of the game includes the playing of “Take me out to the Ballgame”
during the seventh inning stretch.4 When one goes to a game, the only thing one has to worry
about is being hit with flying objects, such as a foul ball or bat, but these things bring a sense of
closeness to the game. It is as if one is down there on the field playing with the guys.
Baseball is a personable game, and it is something that people can relate to. It brings
people together as if they are standing firmly for a good cause. In baseball, one does not have to
worry about a time limit. It is as if time playing baseball is priceless. There are guidelines to
follow while playing the game and this keeps the game structured. There are many things in this
Micah Chen, “America's Pastime: 20 Reasons Why Baseball Will Always Hail over Football,” Bleacher Report,
accessed December 8, 2012, http://bleacherreport.com/articles/676720americas-pastime-20- reasons-why-baseballwill-always-hail-over-football.
3
Ibid.
4
Ibid.
2
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world that are not structured, but baseball utilizes the perfect blend of simplicity and structure, so
much so that the sport became America’s national pastime.
People fall in love with the game of baseball because they become involved. In a way,
baseball is everything America stands for because everyone has a chance on the diamond, which
they call a field. Anyone can become involved with baseball because there are many aspects of
the game that have to be attended. If one is too old to play, then one might manage a team to
victory. If one is young, they can be the biggest fan in the world and cheer their team on. If
someone cannot field, maybe they can hit. If they cannot hit, maybe they can pitch. If they
cannot pitch, they might just become the best bat-boy the world has ever seen.5 Baseball has
room for everyone, regardless of height, weight, race, and even gender.
Even though baseball is for every one of all ages, there are always going to be an elite
group of players that make it to the Major Leagues. They are the best of the best at what they do,
and at the end of the season, the best team will be crowned World Series Champions. Every year
when October comes around, it is playoff time. The four best teams from the National League
and the four best teams from the American League battle to earn a spot in the World Series.
When the World Series comes around, the rest of the season no longer matters. The teams have
seven games to prove that they are better than the other. Whichever team wins four games is
crowned World Series Champions. A seven game series might sound long, drawn out, and
boring, but it is just the opposite. It is challenging because the best team is going to win. Sure, a
team can have a lucky game or two but not four. Baseball is beautiful because everyone is given
a chance, and at the end, the best team is crowed a champion.
During the 1940s, this elite group of baseball players either joined the war effort or
supported the people who did. These men affected America in more ways than one and
5
Ibid.
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contributed to uplifting of morale during this time. These men were unselfish, just as other
servicemen were. They did not only consider themselves to be an elite group of men who played
baseball; they were Americans first and foremost. This is why many men left the game they
loved to pursue the war occurring in Europe.
When magic is present, one has to enjoy it. In the first game of the 1988 World Series,
the Dodgers were down 4-3 in the bottom of the ninth to the Oakland Athletics. Their star player
Kirk Gibson did not start that game because he had injured both of his legs in the previous series,
against the New York Mets. With two outs, Manager Tommy Lasorda put Gibson in to pinch
hit. As he limped to the plate, everyone knew it was going to take a miracle for him to make
solid contact with the ball. He worked pitcher Dennis Eckersley to a full count. Using only pure
upper body strength, he flicked his wrists with a casual swing, and he sent the next pitch over the
right-field fence. Gibson had done it. He had hit a two run homerun to give the Dodgers the
victory over the best closer in baseball. As he trotted around the bases, he pumped his arms, and
he had every right to do so. He was a Los Angeles hero. This moment was magical. On the
night of October 15, 1988, every American was a baseball fan. During that moment, America
witnessed sheer beauty of the game.
The story of Kirk Gibson is parallel with baseball during World War II. Many people did
not think that baseball was going to boost the morale of the country, just like many people
watching Kirk Gibson that night did not believe he was going to succeed. In the end, both
baseball and Kirk Gibson proved people wrong. Kirk Gibson came up clutch for the Dodgers,
and baseball came up clutch by boosting the morale of the country during the war.
The magic and beauty of baseball is not something that is new. It has been around for
over a century. American citizens started playing baseball in the mid nineteenth century. It
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spread quickly, and in 1876, the National League was founded. Children as young as six were
starting to play the game, and these children grew into lifelong fans.6 During the early twentieth
century, baseball was popular, and people related to it. Games were broadcasted over the radio
and reached millions of people.7 When the Great Depression hit, Major League Baseball
experienced a significant forty percent decline in attendance.8 With the Great Depression and
World War II, there would be some changes in America that would affect baseball and its fans.
What America did not realize was that baseball would also affect the war, or at least the people
fighting in it and the loved ones left at home.9
When World War II began in 1939, many Americans wanted to stay neutral in the
conflict. Many Americans did not have the desire to get involved with European affairs, and
even if they did, America did not have the fighting force to do so. The Army was completely
unprepared to fight. At this time, the Army totaled less than two hundred and forty thousand
men, and their planes were outdated with few qualified personal able to fly them. The only
branch of national security that could hold its own with the rest of the world was the United
States Naval division, with eighty two warships.10 Since England was left alone to face the
invasion of Nazi Germany, the U.S. took steps to mobilize the nation’s manpower.11 The
Selective Training and Service Act, signed by President Roosevelt on September 16, 1940, was
the first stride toward accumulating the fighting force of America. This stated that every
American male, between the ages of twenty one and thirty six, was obligated to enlist for twelve
Donald Honig, “Baseball,” In World Book Advanced Encyclopedia.
Ibid.
8
Jeff Obermeyer, “War Games: the Business of Major League Baseball during World War II,” Nine 19, no. 1 (Fall
2010): accessed November 30, 2012, http://go.galegroup.com/ps /i. do?id =GALE%7CA309173927&v=2.1&u=te
l_a_bryan&it=r&p=GPS&sw=w.
9
Ibid.
10
Gary Bedingfield, “Baseball in World War II,” Gary Bedingfield’s Baseball in Wartime, accessed Novemeber 28,
2012, http://www.baseballinwartime.com.
11
Robert F. Burk, “War and Revolution,” In Much more than a Game: Players, Owners, and American Baseball
since 1921, (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 69.
6
7
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months of military duty. It was put in place to guarantee the independence and sovereignty of
the United States.
Most men that were drafted in 1940 and early 1941 were at ease when they did not have
to travel overseas and fight a war over European affairs. Many men had finished their one year
duties, and they hoped that peace would soon return again. These dreams would be shattered on
the morning on December 7, 1941. That morning, there was a surprise aerial attack by the
Japanese that rained terror on Pearl Harbor. This attack either sunk or damaged eighteen
warships of the United States Pacific Fleet. With this attack, America quickly became involved
in World War II. By the end of 1941, the draft put nearly two million men in uniform to protect
the country. This was appraised as one of the best security programs in the history of America.12
World War II was a pivotal point in the nation’s history militarily, economically, and
socially. It also occurred during the latter stages of baseball’s “Golden Age” in America.13 The
war interrupted an unprecedented period in America’s national pastime. Swift mobilization,
required by the war, increased the amount of soldiers and sailors engaged in the military, and it
brought baseball-crazed men into the armed forces. American leaders recognized the importance
of baseball to the servicemen, and they attempted to integrate the game within military
lifestyle.14
When it became evident that the United States was going to enter the war, many men
rushed to enlist in the armed forces, in an overwhelming act of patriotism. Two days after the
attack, baseball great Hank Greenberg re-enlisted after having been discharged from the Army.
He was discharged on the account that there was a new law releasing draftees over the age of
12
Bedingfield.
Stephan R. Bullock, Playing for Their Nation: Baseball and the American Military during World War II,
(Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2004), 1.
14
Burk, 69.
13
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twenty eight, and he was thirty.15 When Greenberg was asked why he reenlisted in the army air
force, his response was:
“We are in trouble, and there is only one thing for me to do- return to the service… This
doubtless means I am finished with baseball and it would be silly for me to say I do not
leave it without a pang. But all of us are confronted with a terrible task- the defense of
our country and the fight of our lives.”16
Greenberg was not the only baseball player to re-enlist. Bob Feller also re-enlisted right after the
bombing, and he served as a chief petty officer in the Navy aboard the battleship Alabama.17
During this time of war, baseball players were showing that they could do more than throw a ball
around a diamond; they showed that they could defend their country.
When Hitler declared war on the United States on December eleventh, he was fueling the
industries of America. The industrial gods were fueled with enthusiasm, while factories,
workshops, mill, and mines all started preparing to go to war.18 The servicemen were not the
only ones going to war; the labor force was too. The automobile industry started producing
military vehicles, trucks, jeeps, tanks, and airplanes. They handled the transportation aspect of
war. Even though manufacturers were comfortable with handling refrigerators and vacuum
cleaners, they started generating large quantities of ammunition, guns, and other essential
merchandise for war. In the same way that baseball players were being turned into servicemen,
manufacturers of baseball equipment and other sporting goods stores also funded the war effort.
“Hillerich and Bradsby, the makers of Louisville Slugger baseball bats, turned their woodturning skills to the production of stocks for the M1 carbine rifle.”19 With the determination of
15
Bedingfield.
Ward, 275-276.
17
Bedingfield.
18
Ibid.
19
Ibid.
16
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the servicemen and the laymen, America was surpassing the objective it had given to turn out to
be the “Arsenal of Democracy.”20
When the United States got involved in World War II in 1941, it was questionable if
Major League Baseball would return in 1942. Baseball fans were having déjà vu because they
experienced this same conflict in 1917 and 1918 during World War I. The question was whether
or not baseball should continue. When major league owners gathered in Chicago for their annual
meeting, they did not see a reason not to carry on with the season. World War I had almost
brought baseball to a standstill, but their season carried on.21
In 1918, World War I was flourishing and Major League Baseball was diminishing. The
baseball season had been cut short, and the World Series was played in early September, instead
of late October. By October of 1918, nearly fifty percent of the players on Major League rosters
were in the service, but very few of them experienced combat. Many of the players were
involved in “bulletproof jobs,” which were jobs that did not involve combat. Even though very
few players saw action, baseball still played an important role for men in uniform. Even though
baseball suffered in 1918, it flourished when men returned home from the war in 1919. The
Sporting News, “Bible of Baseball,” shipped copies of their magazine to returning soldiers
because it wsa considered to be “real American”22 There was nothing more American than
baseball in 1919. Richard C. Crepeau states that, “The National Pastime did its bit in the war
and came away knowing that war had been good for America, good for the world, and good for
baseball.”23
20
Ibid.
Steve Gietschier, "Halcyon Days," The Sporting News, January 13, 1997, 47, accessed December 2,2012, http://g
o.galegroup.com.libproxy.bryan.edu/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA19034211&v=2.1&u=tel_a_bryan&it=r&p=GPS&sw=
w.
22
Richard C Crepeau, Baseball: America’s Diamond Mind, (Orlando: University Presses of Florida, 1980), 2.
23
Idib., 1.
21
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Major League Baseball owners saw how baseball affected the men returning home from
World War I, and they wanted to experience that. They wanted to make a lasting impact on
one’s life with baseball; the only thing is that they wanted to do it better. They wanted baseball
during World War II to actually flourish, while it boosted the morale of its soldiers and laymen.
Many citizens and veterans of World War I had an opinion of whether or not baseball should
continue. World War I veteran and ace fighter pilot Eddie Rickenbacker stated, “When there is
no more reason for self-reliance in this country, then alone will there be no more reason for
baseball.”24 New York Mayor Fiorella LaGuardia echoed Rickenbacker’s sentiments when he
said, “Our people don’t mind being rationed on sugar and shoes, but those men in Washington
will have to leave our baseball alone.” LaGuardia also stated, “I’m for winning the war and for
keeping baseball… We can, and must, do both.”25 These are some of the responses from the
public about the importance of baseball in America. The Baseball Magazine noted that baseball
was becoming a hot topic with war and made the statement:
“The idea that baseball is a luxury that ought to be postponed until the war is over is
ridiculous. It is just as useful to the average spectator as to the soldier. The clerk who is
working long hours for small pay needs something like baseball to put a little red blood in
his veins, once in a while. The American people need it as a mental and physical tonic.
And as for the soldiers… baseball was made to order for them. The soldiers need a
healthy influence to guard them against the evils which always lurk around [military
installations]. Let’s have baseball, plenty of it, all the more because we are at war.”26
This quote from The Baseball Magazine suggested that baseball was an essential part of the
American way of life. It is something that should not be taken away because the country was in
a major turmoil.
Major League Baseball Commissioner Kennesaw Landis also questioned if baseball
should continue while the country was involved in a world war. The commissioner was not sure
24
Bullock, 12.
Ibid., 12.
26
Ibid., 14.
25
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how to approach this situation, so on fourteenth day of January 1942, he wrote a letter to
President Roosevelt seeking his advice.27 Commissioner Landis wrote to President Roosevelt:
“Baseball is about to adopt schedules, sign players, make vast commitments, go to
training camps… What do you want us to do? If you believe we ought to close down for
the duration of the war, we are ready to do so immediately. If you feel we ought to
continue, we would be delighted to do so. We await your order.”28
Even though Landis was not a fan of President Roosevelt, he needed advice from someone, and
he wanted to receive it from the man that was in charge of the nation.29 The very next day,
President Roosevelt had a very meaningful lunch with his secretary Dorothy Brady, who was an
avid baseball fan. He asked her opinion on whether or not to shut down baseball for the
remainder of the war. Her response was, “Never! Americans need to be able to cheer for their
favorite players and boo the umpire; otherwise, the tensions of the war would simply be too
great.”30 That same day President Roosevelt asked Ms. Brady to send a letter back to the
commissioner, known as “the green light letter.” President Roosevelt’s personal opinion was:
“[I]t would be best for the country to keep baseball going. There will be fewer people
unemployed and everybody will work longer hours and harder than ever before…
Baseball provides a recreation which does not last over two hours or two hours and a
half, and which can be got for very little cost… As to the players themselves, I know you
agree with me that individual players who are of active military age should go, without
question, into the services. Even if the actual quality to the teams is lowered by the
greater use of older players, this will not dampen the popularity of the sport.”31
Citizens did not want to see baseball suffer. In times of hardship, people want to be entertained,
and baseball would supply sufficient entertainment.32
After President Roosevelt released his “green light letter,” there were negative reactions
from some citizens because they did not believe that continuing baseball was the best decision
27
Percoco, 55.
Ward, 276.
29
Obermeyer.
30
Ward, 276.
31
Obermeyer.
32
Ibid.
28
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for the country. They believed that baseball lacked the manpower to continue to play, since a
good many players were going off to war. In hindsight, this attitude was understandable and
expected, and it was only voiced by a minority. The majority of Americans knew that baseball
was going to boost the morale of the country. To put some of the negative responses to ease, The
Sporting News made it their mission to ask servicemen what they thought about the decision to
keep baseball going. They asked Private John Stevenson, based at Fort Dix, what he thought
about the decision, and he said, “Baseball is part of the American way of life. Remove it and you
remove something from the lives of American citizens, soldiers and sailors.” Private Clifford
Mansfield added that, “For the morale of the soldier and the morale of America itself, keep 'em
playing.”33 Not only did average citizens know that baseball would help invigorate the morale of
the country, but servicemen knew it as well. Baseball was invaluable to the war effort because
of its unique ability to elevate morale. Baseball was a symbol of Americanism, and the citizens
wanted it to remain that way. 34
In President Roosevelt’s “green light letter,” he gave reasons as to why he thought
baseball should continue throughout the war. He insisted that, “If 300 teams use 5,000-6,000
players, those players are a definite recreational asset to at least 20,000,000 of their fellow
citizens- and that in my judgment is thoroughly worthwhile.”35 The president was analyzing this
dilemma from the perspective of the average American citizen. He was trying to think of the
people first, instead of money. He wanted to give his citizens something to look forward to in a
time that there was not much to be happy about, since America was involved in a world war.
There were also other supporters of the continuation of baseball during the war effort. Larry
33
Bedingfield, 55.
Bullock, 15.
35
David Finoli, For the Good of the Country: World War II Baseball in the Major and Minor Leagues, (Jefferson
NC: McFarland, 2002), 9.
34
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MacPhail was one of the biggest. He wanted baseball to raise $500,000 to be donated to the war
relief fund. Although his views were sometimes radical, his passion to raise money for the war
was genuine. He wanted to do everything in his power to help America during the war, and he
did this by taking an aggressive stance on baseball.36 Commissioner Landis was also willing to
help with the war effort. He donated ten percent of his salary and Major League Baseball’s total
income to invest in war bonds.
37
Contributing to the war was a group effort on behalf of
baseball and its supporters.
There were also many notable personalities during this time that contributed to keeping
baseball going. The nation’s most prominent, weekly, outspoken proponent of baseball was The
Sporting News. One of the reasons it was very outspoken for the continuation of baseball was
because its existence relied on the continuation of the game. It stressed the importance of
baseball in providing inspiration for Americans during wartime. According to the editors of The
Sports Weekly, baseball had a “special mission” to sustain morale and to provide a “vitalizing
spirit” for both servicemen and civilians.38 It also supported the claim that baseball was
synonymous with the “American way of life.” In addition to making connections between
baseball and war, The Sporting News also derived a connection between the preamble of the
Constitution, “We the People,” and the national pastime by stating that “Baseball is the
people.”39 This claim can seem to be farfetched, but the reality is that during World War II,
baseball was a figurehead that represented the people.
In 1941, major league baseball was at its finest. It was a year of many records and
milestones. Joe DiMaggio earned himself a base hit in fifty six consecutive games; Ted
36
Finoli, 12.
Finoli, 13.
38
Bullock, 13.
39
Bullock, 14.
37
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Williams hit for an unheard of average of .406; Lefty Grove won his three hundredth career
game; and Mickey Owen was practically shunned after misplacing a ball at home plate that
caused the Brooklyn Dodgers the World Series. It was an unforgettable year in baseball, not
only because of the milestones accomplished by players, but because baseball lost two of its
superstars to the draft.40 On March 8, 1941, Hugh Mulcahy arrived at Camp Edwards as the first
Major League Baseball player in training camp. Two months later, Detroit Tigers superstar
Hank Greenberg was drafted.41 There were major league players drafted before Mulcachy and
Greenberg, but they were not as highly publicized as these two. In 1940, Toronto Maple Leafs’
outfielder Billy Southworth Jr. voluntarily enlisted in the Army Air Corps. Southworth said he
enlisted because it was his duty and they were going to need baseball players to enlist, and his
baseball career could wait.42 Three other popular players that were drafted or volunteered for
service were Joe DiMaggio, Bob Feller, and Ted Williams.43
Ted Williams became a Navy flyer, after he signed up for another stint in the Navy. This
angered the Boston fans because they wanted to see the hard hitting lefty back on the field. Bob
Feller signed up for military service the day after Pearl Harbor was attacked, and Braves’ pitcher
Warren Spahn experienced intense combat and survived the Battle of the Bulge. Luke Appling,
shortstop for the Chicago White Sox, joined the military campaign in 1943, and when he did, his
wife suggested that it was a good sign for the country. She suggested that, “The war would soon
be over, because outside of baseball, Luke never held a job for over two weeks.”44 By the time
the war was over, some 340 Major League players joined the military and more than 3,000
40
Bedingfiled.
Obermeyer.
42
Bedingfield.
43
James Percoco, “Baseball and World War II: A Study of the Landis-Roosevelt Correspondence,” Organization of
American Historians Magazine of History 7, no. 1 (Summer 1992): 56, accessed October 22, 2012,
http://www.jstor.org/stable/25162857.
44
Geoffrey C. Ward, Baseball: An Illustrated History, (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1994), 278.
41
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Minor League players did as well. Just as Luke Appling’s wife used humor to make a statement
about the war, so did minor league manager Spencer Abbott. When his third starting second
baseman was drafted, he made the comment that, “They must be gonna fight this darned war
around second base.”45 The draft was hard on baseball because it occupied so many of its
players, but it was something that had to be done.
During the early years of the war, The Sporting News offered a ten dollar first prize for
the servicemen who wrote the most persuasive letter in support of the continuation of Major
League Baseball. A countless number of soldiers and sailors chimed in with emotional accounts
of why they thought baseball was important to the well-being of Americans. The winner of the
contest was Pvt. Wayne Ashworth, and he was very enthusiastic about the value of baseball to
the American people. He stated that:
“Discontinue baseball and you remove something from our morale- something only
baseball can fill. Even if we haven’t [had] the opportunity to attend as many games, we’ll
be there in ‘spirit.’ We’ll follow the game just as closely through the radio, newspapers,
and magazines. To us, baseball is a morale-booster- a recreation- a source of
enjoyment.”46
Many of the letters that The Sporting News received were similar to this one. They wanted to
keep in touch with the game because it was engrained in them, and it was a way of life.
According to The Sporting News, sailors and soldiers did not just want to receive scores of major
and minor league games; they also wanted to know who pitched each game, how many hits were
given up, how many strikeouts he had, and how the team did overall.47 Soldiers wanted to be
involved in as many aspects of the game as they could be.
By 1943, two hundred and nineteen men had traded their baseball uniform and cap for a
military uniform. Branch Rickey, owner of the Dodgers, felt like too many of his players were
45
Ward, 279.
Ibid., 16.
47
Ibid., 15.
46
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being sent off to war, so he issued a defense on behalf of baseball that focused on his players’
contribution to war. He complained that entertainers received special treatment when it came to
the war effort, and his baseball players did not. His frustration stemmed from the fact that his
organization lost a fair number of Major League players, and two hundred and sixty five Minor
League players. As a result of the player drain, the number of Minor League organizations fell
to nine. Two years previously to 1943, there were forty-one Minor League organizations.48
Although the Minor Leagues were holding on by a thread, the level of play diminished
significantly. During the war, there were men in the minors that would have never even been
scouted if it was not for so many players joining the military. As the number of players that
became involved in the war effort grew, the quality of talent in the Major and Minor Leagues
decreased.49 Over sixty percent of major league starters were in the military in 1944. By the
following year, the total number of Major League baseball players in the military had reached
five hundred and nine.50 The war was taking a toll on the game because players were leaving the
big leagues like one after another.
Since players were being taken away from their teams, they had to find a way to fill their
rosters. A hodgepodge of players was called into the Major Leagues. Broadcaster Red Barber
described the skill level of the baseball scene as, “a matter of playing anyone who was
breathing.”51 Joe Nuxhall, a fifteen year old kid, was called up to pitched for the Cincinnati
Reds; Pete Gray, a one-armed outfielder, played for the St. Louis Browns; and Jimmie Foxx
came out of retirement to suit up for the Philadelphia Phillies.52 Babe Herman came out of an
eight year retirement to rejoin the big leagues. The Red Sox even held open tryouts for anyone
48
Burk, 72.
Finoli, 58.
50
Burk, 72.
51
Ibid., 72.
52
Percoco, 58.
49
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who wanted the chance to play professional baseball. Cleveland found a ball player with size 17
shoes, and the only reason he had the opportunity to play was because his feet were too big to fit
into army shoes, so he did not have to worry about being drafted. Clark Griffith of the Senators
even went as far as to import eighteen players from the Caribbean. Those men did not last long
though because the War Department threatened to deport any of them who did not register for
the draft. 53 These men might not have been the greatest ball players or the most suitable for the
job, but players like these kept the game alive.
Although the quality of baseball was diminishing because of the assortment of men that
were not qualified enough to play professional baseball, it certainly provided the country with
the morale boost that President Roosevelt had envisioned. The 1944 season was not filled with
controversy like the previous two were; this season provided the best entertainment the sport had
yet to see. Even with the miraculous play of baseball, the game still did not overshadow the
war.54 The Minor League still continued to have problems fielding their rosters, and Major
League Baseball was starting to experience some problems of its own- what to do with baseball
veterans when they returned from war? They had planned to give the players a fair chance to
earn their position back, and they were going to pay them at the same level of that when they
went to war. If they did not succeed at making their parent club, they would be placed one
classification below the one they were obtained at.55
Commissioner Landis had been asked many times about the participants of the Negro
League. Some thought it would be best for baseball if African Americans participated in
professional baseball, but a vast majority did not see this as the case. Landis responded to these
questions by saying: “There is no rule, formal or informal, or nay understanding- unwritten,
53
Ward, 279.
Finoli, 141.
55
Idib., 143.
54
Vaughn 17
subterranean, or sub-anything- against the hiring of Negro players by the teams of organized
ball.”56 This, however, was a hallow statement because there was never a African American
player signed under Commissioner Landis’ control. There were several opportunities for Landis
to work with African Americans, but he made sure that did not happen. In 1943, the Pittsburgh
Pirates sought permission from Landis to hire Josh Gibson, and Landis bluntly refused. He said,
“The colored ballplayers have their own league. Let them say in their own league.” He also had
an opportunity to for African Americans to participate in Major League Baseball when Bill
Veeck Jr. attempted to buy the Philadelphia Phillies and re-staff the team with stars from the
Negro League. When Landis received the news of Veeck’s plan, he made sure that the team was
sold to someone else. Landis had plenty of opportunities for African Americans to participate in
his league, but he never allowed it.57 There were some Negro players, however, that missed out
on their chance in the Major Leagues because they went into the service. A few of these men
were Monte Irvin, Larry Doby, Willard Brown, Connie Johnson, and Max Manning. All of these
men had sensational seasons year after year in the Negro League, but they were never given the
chance to perform at the major league level, whether it was because of their race or enlistment in
the military.58
Major League Baseball was bringing back retired players and teenagers to play on their
professional teams, and this did not go unnoticed by African Americans. They had noticed that
schoolboys, physically handicapped men, and retired men were given the opportunity to play
baseball instead of talented black men. Despite the resentment of African Americans in
professional baseball, they drew quite respectable crowds in the Negro League.59 Baseball
56
Ward, 282.
Idib., 283.
58
Finoli, 62.
59
Ibid., 57.
57
Vaughn 18
owners supplied a number of reasons for maintaining segregated baseball. They said that many
of the African Americans did not have enough talent to play in the majors. They also appealed
to the importance of the Negro League in American society; they did not want to ruin their
league by taking the best of their talent. Although there was no rule against white and black
Americans playing on the same team, neither club invited the other to join them, for obvious
reasons.60 Baseball remained segregated until 1945.
Commissioner Landis ended up holding baseball back by not allowing African
Americans to participate in the Major Leagues. This was a human rights violation on his part,
and it also lessened the quality of the league by not having some of the best baseball players in
the nation participating.61 When Albert “Happy” Chandler replaced Kennesaw Landis after he
passed away, he indicated that baseball would be one of the first areas to promote equal
opportunities for African Americans. On October 23, 1945, Commissioner Chandler and
Brooklyn Dodgers owner Branch Rickey signed a contract with Jack Roosevelt Robinson to play
Major League Baseball. Rickey was highly criticized for his decision to sign Robinson. Players
were split about the decision and did not voice their opinions as much, but club owners did not
have a problem voicing theirs.62 As would be expected, Robinson felt pressure from Americans
in his everyday life, but he performed with skill and class that few will ever know or achieve.63
Between the years of 1940 and 1942, there were immense labor shortages during the war.
Four million women entered the work force because men were in training camps or overseas.64
With baseball players going to war, owners feared that citizens were going to lose interest in the
60
Obermeyer.
Finoli, 149.
62
Finoli, 231.
63
Idib., 232.
64
Gai Berlage, “World War II: The All American Girls’ Professional Baseball League,” In Women in Baseball; The
Forgotten History, (Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, 1994), 133.
61
Vaughn 19
game. As a precaution, Philip Wrigley, owner of the Chicago Cubs, along with Branch Rickey,
and lawyer Paul Harper founded the professional All-American Girls’ Baseball League in
1943.65 This is the only time that women have ever played professional baseball.66 Wrigley
envisioned that the female baseball players would act as a gate attraction that would utilize
Minor League stadiums and help maintain public interest in baseball.67 They would utilize the
Midwestern baseball facilities until the men came home from war.68 Previously, softball had
consumed a terrific fan base, so Wrigley knew the ladies would draw some spectators. Before
World War II, there were nearly 40,000 women playing semipro softball in small towns across
the country.69 Although many people attended softball games, most suggested that the ladies had
very masculine characteristics. Softball had an image problem.70
Since there seemed to be an image problem in softball, Wrigley wanted to establish a
high-class league that could be seen as good, clean, family entertainment. Softball might have
been popular previously, but Wrigley wanted to establish something new and better. In this
league, femininity would be imperative, and the players would act like well-respected ladies in
the community.71 The players had to be good, but they also had to be irreproachably feminine.
Wrigley stated that, “Femininity is the keynote of our league. No pants-wearing, tough-talking
female softballer will play on any of our four teams.” The women attended charm school, and
chaperones accompanied the teams from town to town. The players were required to wear skirts,
high heels, and makeup off the field, and they were fined with a violation of any infractions.72
65
Finoli, 62.
Percoco, 57.
67
Berlage, 134.
68
Burk, 75.
69
Ward, 280.
70
Berlage, 134.
71
Idib., 134
72
Ward, 280.
66
Vaughn 20
The All American Girls’ Professional Baseball League was officially established in 1943
as a non-profit organization.73 Hundreds of women turned up at Wrigley Field in Chicago for
tryouts. In the earlier days of the league there were four teams: the Rockford Peaches, Racine
Belles, Kenosha Comets, and South Bend Blue Sox.74 Wrigley emphasized that the league was
created for patriotism of the country, rather than profit. He wanted to make available wholesome
entertainment to enhance the morale of factory workers. As a way to keep up their image, the
women visited military bases, hospitals, and helped develop youth programs. As a sign of their
patriotic duty, the teams would line up in a V formation on the field before games. They were
also active in getting the public to purchase war bonds, as well as purchasing their own. Women
baseball players did much more than play a game; they were successful in boosting the morale of
the country.75
In 1945, the All American Girls’ Professional Baseball League was booming, with nearly
a million fans. Attendance nearly doubled from the previous year. In its third year, the league
was beginning to be treated like a professional baseball organizaiton. Every team was owned
separately, and a post season, playoff system was established that consisted of the top four
teams.76 By the last year of the league, it had doubled in size. The league now included teams
from: Minneapolis, Fort Warne, Grand Rapids, Battle Creek, Kalamazoo, and Springfield. Just
as every great baseball player has a nickname, the All American Girls’ Professional Baseball
League developed some nicknames of its own. The women were referred to as the Queens of
Swat and the Belles of the Ball Game.77 In 1989, the Baseball Hall of Fame dedicated an exhibit
73
Berlage, 134.
Ward, 80.
75
Berlage, 134.
76
Finoli, 229.
77
Ward, 280.
74
Vaughn 21
to the women who participated in the All American Girls’ Professional Baseball League.78 Even
if the women did not realize it then, they were benefiting their country by playing the game they
loved.
In 1943, there was still doubt on whether or not to continue playing professional baseball.
Even though President Roosevelt had given Commissioner Landis the “green light” to continue
playing two years earlier, there was still concern that baseball was not providing the morale
boost that the country needed. Dodger General Manager Branch Rickey was concerned that
baseball players could be more useful on another field besides that of a baseball field. He was
partial to the idea that men would be more essential to the war effort if they were actually on the
battlefield, instead of a baseball diamond. Commissioner Landis assured Mr. Rickey that
continuing play was the best decision for the nation in his statement, “As long as we can put nine
men on the field, the game will not die. Let sixty million baseball fans raise their voice as to
whether the game should or should not be played in these times.” That was the reassurance that
Mr. Rickey and other pessimists needed to continue with the game.79
There were some changes, however, that made the game more feasible. The budget for
each team was cut so there would be more money readable available for the war effort.80 Players
were also paid partially in war bonds, and they were made to train north of the Mason-Dixon
Line, in order to cut down on unnecessary travel.81 There was also a proposal to cut the season
from one hundred and fifty four games to just one hundred and forty, but Commissioner Landis
did not approve. Instead, they played the regular one hundred and fifty four game schedule, but
they reduced the man mileage wherever possible. This in return led to the voluntary reduction of
78
Berlage, 133.
Finoli, 54.
80
Idib., 54.
81
Ward, 279.
79
Vaughn 22
traveling squads.82 There were many things that baseball was doing to contribute to the war
effort.
On American soil, military leaders and professional baseball officials fostered a close
relationship in order to increase troop morale and aid in the war effort. In most Major League
Baseball parks, soldiers and sailors in uniform received free admission to games; in return, this
increased attendance for ballparks. Sometimes, teams would sponsor military-appreciation days
where they publically acknowledged the contributions of servicemen. Occasionally, they would
even let them go down on the field and meet some of the players. Military leaders encouraged
attempts to raise the morale of the soldiers through exhibition games, tours by professional
baseball players, and visits to Major League ballparks.83 A large majority of big league players
had spent some time in the armed services, so when it was time for major leaguers to visit
servicemen, it was not difficult to find one that was willing to visit camps and potentially have an
impact on a fellow soldier’s morale. Since there was a great deal of baseball talent in the armed
services, there were many contests that involved civilians playing their idols in a friendly game
of baseball.84
When America joined the Second World War, baseball was making an impact on the
home front that was unprecedented because it was boosting the morale of American citizens.
Baseball was giving men, women, and children an opportunity to retreat from conversations
about war, and focus on an activity, such as baseball, that was much livelier. Baseball, however,
did not just affect the morale of the home front; it affected the lives of many servicemen who
were overseas fighting the Germans and Japanese. The Feather River Bulletin of Plumas
County, California suggests that:
82
Finoli, 54.
Bullock, 21.
84
Idib., 22.
83
Vaughn 23
“Baseball is more than a National Game. It is America’s anchor. It keeps the ship of
state fast to its moorings in a balanced life… American boys play ball. “Play Ball” is
their battle cry, not “Heil Hitler.” While fascists are learning to toss hand grenades, little
Americans are learning to groove one over the plate. But woes betide the enemy when an
American boy finds it needful to throw hand grenades!”85
This was not suggesting that baseball prepared American citizens for war; it was suggesting that
baseball helped keep the country together, while she was at war. This statement also suggested
that baseball was the foundation of America, and that it was used during the war as a crutch for
people to rely on.
During the war, it was very hard for soldiers and sailors to acclimate themselves to the
changes that the military brought. It was hard because it was the first time that all of the parts of
their lives were missing. They were missing their families, jobs, friends, and the familiarity of
their respective hometowns. They could no longer come and go as they pleased. They were not
just average citizens anymore; they were soldiers. They were soldiers who had to be instructed
when to eat, sleep, shower, and train. This left psychological effects on them, and it caused
anxiety and depression for some. The soldiers were facing difficulties when trying to adapt to
military life, and this brought concern to military leaders.86 Military officials were concerned
about this because there had been studies done that had recognized the importance of the
servicemen’s morale during times of war. Morale was then looked to as a huge contributor to a
victorious military campaign. Since then, military commanders have deemed it essential to
increase the level of morale on and off the battlefield.87
It goes without question to say that baseball gave American military commanders a
indigenous method for improving morale and supplementing training throughout the war. This
was possible because of participatory programs, exhibition games, and tours by Major League
85
Ward, 276.
Bullock, 5.
87
Ibid., 2
86
Vaughn 24
Baseball players. Through these events and programs, the military fostered the national pastime
on the playing field, as well as preparing men for victory on the battlefield. Baseball was such a
huge proponent during the war because of its universal appeal among servicemen. Baseball was
used as a source of diversion from the atrocities that were taking place on the battlefield. It was
also used as a form of unity for soldiers and sailors that were facing difficult and chaotic
situations. As a result, the morale-building qualities of baseball alleviated some of the
difficulties in organizing something that would affect all of the servicemen. Instead of having to
plan a huge event for the servicemen to get involved in, they were able to get a baseball game
going so the men would flock to the diamond. Baseball united fellow soldiers because when
they were playing on the field, they were all equal, and they were defending each other’s honor
and lives.88 The same is true for people today that participate in sports or other activities. One
might not always like the people they are associated with, but when people come together for a
common purpose, like to win a game, a bond is created that is very strong. This is one of the
reasons that baseball was used in the military; it was used as a tool to unify servicemen. When
servicemen are unified, they become like an efficient machine that cannot be broken.89
According to Hall of Fame Yankee shortstop and Navy enlistee Phil Rizzuto, the game of
baseball served to “bring [servicemen] together and elevate morale” in unfamiliar surroundings
and where uncertainties were prevalent. He also claimed that he had never met anyone who did
not like baseball; therefore, it was the perfect game to play while men were at war or any other
time in general. Marine Corporal George Paulson stated that, “there was no question that
baseball was extremely important to most servicemen and was a part of the American way of life
88
89
Idib., 27.
Idib., 27.
Vaughn 25
for which soldiers and sailors were fighting.”90 Even though baseball was a huge part of military
life overseas, many servicemen wondered if their fellow citizens at home knew how much the
game meant to them. Marine Major Roscoe Torrance asked “if the folks at home realize the hold
baseball had on the majority of other men donning American uniforms.” He went on to explain
that baseball helped relieve tension, and it also helped to displace the trauma that was
experienced on the battlefield. Many servicemen ranked baseball at the top of the list as a
morale builder, second only to letters that they received from home.91
There were many ways that baseball boosted morale, but the most direct and beneficial
way was through participatory baseball programs that flourished on bases and camps around the
world, during World War II. Captain Robert Emmet, of the Great Lakes Naval Training Station,
placed a great deal of importance on baseball programs on bases. When speaking about
incoming soldiers he said:
“They’re facing the job of adjusting themselves to military life, in addition to undergoing
intensive routine[s]. A game of baseball is a genuine incentive for wholesome thinking.
They’ll discuss the plays and the players of the exciting game for days after the last out.
When a man’s mind is alive with interest and enthusiasm, there’s no room in it for
homesickness or depressive thoughts.”92
Capt. Emmet was correct in his assessment of baseball and the impact that it had on sailors and
servicemen in general. Baseball was a great way for servicemen to take their minds off the war
that was going on before their eyes. When soldiers and sailors became preoccupied with
something other than the war that was occurring right in front of them, their morale rose. This is
exactly what happened with baseball. Baseball gave servicemen an opportunity to forget about
the war and concentrate on something that was fun and entertaining.
90
Idib., 4.
Idib., 4.
92
Idib., 4-5.
91
Vaughn 26
Captain Emmet was known as the “no. 1 man in baseball.” He managed some of the
greatest military baseball teams during World War II. He oversaw teams that consisted of
Johnny Mize, Bob Feller, and “Schoolboy” Rowe. He scheduled exhibition games with rival
bases and even Major League clubs just so his men could have entertainment. He wanted to lift
their spirits, and he did it in the best way he knew how: by bringing in Major League Baseball
players.93
The Illinois Great Lakes Naval Training Station was not the only place that exhibition
baseball games were occurred. Other military officials also constructed exhibitions to elevate
morale among servicemen. The majority of these games were staged for servicemen awaiting
shipment overseas. Military leaders were determined that exhibition games and ‘meet and greet’
events with major league ball players were imperative to maintaining high morale.94
Throughout the first half of 1945, both Army and Navy squads from Hawaii
independently played exhibitions for thousands of interested spectators. For the soldiers, sailors,
and Marines who had endured the harsh realities of island hopping during World War II, such a
diversion was welcomed.95 These were not the only diversions that were welcomed, but baseball
was the prominent one that everyone could enjoy. It provided a sense of unity among the
servicemen when other things could not.
Recognizing that servicemen needed a diversion, military officials searched for methods
to ease servicemen’s transitions into military life. They tried to incorporate various facets of
civilian culture into military sanctioned events. With the need of activities, military leaders often
sponsored the organization of baseball programs for soldiers and sailors. Major Leon David was
one of the first of many to testify that it was important for the military to have athletic programs.
93
Idib., 22.
Idib., 22.
95
Idib., 25.
94
Vaughn 27
David insisted that the condition of a unit’s athletic programs were an acceptable gauge of that
unit’s morale level. He believed that an increase in the number of participants in athletic
programs would benefit the morale of servicemen directly.96
The Army and the Navy were both on board with creating athletic programs to benefit the
soldiers. These programs were instrumental in maintaining a positive morale of the soldiers and
to having a victorious military campaign. The Army went as far as to create a program for
officers at Fort Meade in Maryland for the tenacity of training them in the appropriate methods
for organizing, promoting, and maintaining athletic programs. The Navy created something
similar under heavyweight boxing champion Gene Tunney. Tunney supervised the instruction of
enlisted men and officers. These men were then distributed to various Naval bases around the
globe to compose athletic and recreational activities for sailors.97
The American armed forces believed that athletics contributed to the morale of soldiers.
As a result, the armed forces supported a wide assortment of programs that were intended to
physically arouse millions of servicemen, who served during the war. The activities became
most prevalent during basic training. In some instances, participation in athletics, such as
baseball, was not even voluntary. It was mandatory.98 The officers wanted to do everything they
could do make sure the servicemen had an outlet from the horrors of war because they truly
believed that athletic programs would stimulate their morale.99
Baseball was a big part of military life, especially games between Army and Navy. The
biggest baseball extravaganza during World War II occurred in 1944, between Army and Navy.
It was an eleven game series between Army and Navy all-stars, which included several Major
96
Idib., 5.
Ibid., 5.
98
Ibid., 5.
99
Ibid., 6.
97
Vaughn 28
League players and future Hall of Famers. The series occurred in Honolulu, Hawaii. Army was
led by General Robert Richardson Jr., and Navy was led by Admiral Chester Nimitz. The
intention of this “Servicemen’s World Series” was to lift the spirits of the servicemen stationed
in Hawaii and to determine bragging rights between the two branches of armed forces.100
Both teams had about a week to form their rosters, and unfortunately for Army, Navy
assembled one of the greatest baseball teams of all time in just a matter of three days.101 Navy’s
lineup was busting at the seams with talent and Major League players, while Army’s fell short.
Johnny Mize, Peewee Reese, and Barney McCosky led the Navy squad. Army also had very
talented players, but Joe DiMaggio, Buddy Lewis, nor Hank Greenberg were able to play. The
Navy squad captured the “Servicemen’s World Series” by winning eight of the eleven games.102
The two squads then parted ways and were dispatched throughout the Pacific to entertain
sailors.103 The series was important on many levels. It enabled servicemen an opportunity to
watch a competitive baseball series, as well as the chance to see some of Major League’s finest
on the diamond. The importance of this game was centered on morale, even though there were
bragging rights at stake.
Baseball was not strictly played on the home front; it was played overseas as well. Army
Colonel Earl Peak recalled that while on the home front, many soldiers participated in baseball
programs designed to improve morale and instill cohesiveness. Across the Pacific, however,
combat conditions and a lack of adequate equipment rarely gave soldiers the luxury of spending
time on the diamond. Although there were occasional equipment shortages, sailor Richard
Nowak believed that baseball “helped a lot” in easing anxieties of the war. Nowak’s personal
100
Idib., 23.
Idib., 23.
102
Idib., 24.
103
Idib., 25.
101
Vaughn 29
experience as a soldier did not allow him sufficient time to play baseball. Once he entered
combat in the Pacific, his recreational possibilities were limited by the days or weeks that his
vessel spent at sea. Many people that were left at sea would let that affect their chances of ever
playing ball, but Nowak and his fellow crew members did not let their situation completely
dictate their activities. On trips throughout the Pacific, Nowak and his shipmates kept gloves
and balls close by and were at least able to engage in a game of catch.104 Dedication to baseball
like that of Nowak and his shipmates is what kept the morale up during the war. It was not
necessarily that baseball itself kept the morale of the servicemen up, but the dedication of
servicemen to baseball is what kept the morale up. When people become dedicated to something
such as baseball, its power becomes incredible.
Overseas, soldiers did not have as many opportunities to play baseball and other
activities, even though it would have benefitted them greatly. Equipment shortages and time
spent in combat were the main factors as to why baseball was limited overseas. Areas that
experienced combat were the ones that needed morale boost the most, and even though there
were equipment shortages, this did not get the best of the servicemen’s attitudes. When
conditions were acceptable and equipment was supplied, superior officers often required
servicemen to participate in athletics, such as baseball, for at least two hours a day, no matter
what the weather was like. Even if activities such as these would not have been mandatory, there
would still have been a large number of participants.105 This again shows the dedication that
servicemen had to the game.
Even in the absence of organized baseball games or exhibitions, soldiers and sailors
found other ways to maintain a connection to the game. In many cases, this involved
104
105
Idib., 11.
Idib., 11.
Vaughn 30
conversations about the game, reading newspapers, or listening to radio broadcasts. In the
barracks and camps, there were a multitude of ethnic and religious backgrounds so it was
difficult to come up with topics of conversation that everyone could relate to. There were very
few topics that were universal, but one of them was baseball. The servicemen used
conversations about baseball to relate to one another, and they were also used as a therapeutic
method to distract themselves from the horrors of war that were lurking around the corner.106
In spite of the great importance for baseball during the war, some argue that the time
spent playing baseball could have been used for other activities, such as training for combat.
Even though recreational activities and baseball were fun, they were not a substitute for proper
training. For example, turning a swift double play or laying down the perfect sacrifice bunt was
not going to help win the war. This observation is even backed by Navy draftee and Cleveland
Indian Gene Woodling. He implied that his early months in the military could have been better
spent. He recalls that he received quite a bit of instruction about recreational activities and
organizing athletic programs and his military training was not very thorough. During his time in
the Pacific, Woodling spent a majority of his time hiding from the Japanese on the island of
Saipan. He cited his lack of expertise in weapons and combat as a prime motivation for avoiding
the enemy.107 This argument has a lot of truth to it, but it is also possible that Woodling did not
take advantage of his time in basic training. His opinion was that soldiers should have spent less
time playing baseball, but the majority of the servicemen did not agree with him. They believed
baseball was an essential part of their military career.108
While there were obvious physical and psychological benefits to playing baseball during
World War II, there were also nuances. Sometimes athletic injuries that occurred on the playing
106
Idib., 11-12.
Ibid., 10.
108
Ibid., 10.
107
Vaughn 31
field threatened to detract from the positive aspects of recreational activities. Although the
majority of athletic injuries suffered by soldiers and sailors resulted from contact sports, such as
football and boxing, baseball presented its own hazards. It was very possible for men to be hit
with hard balls traveling at high speeds. Baseball bats also provided their own hazards. They
were thirty-five-inch bats, and they could be used in fights if things got heated on the field.
Players also had to worry about malicious slides and tags. Miss thrown balls were also capable
of inflicting serious injuries and deactivating an individual for days or weeks. Military officers
were all for playing baseball, but when it affected their men on the battlefield, it became a
different story. They became critics of the game, instead of worshippers.109
On the other hand, there were some cases where officers tried to incorporate baseball into
traditional military training. There was one unique case at Fort Custer in Michigan, where
military officials scheduled a game between two service teams, one of which was the Chemical
Warfare Division. Officers required members of the team to compete in the game while wearing
gas masks, so the soldiers could become accustomed to the equipment. There were also
instances like that at Mare Island Marines Barracks in California, where officers used baseball as
a means to entertain soldiers and to keep them in top physical condition; this was the more
traditional way to integrate baseball and military training.110
Nevertheless, most officers encouraged fascination and participation in baseball. Not
only did they encourage it, but they also made substantial efforts to accommodate their desire to
stay connected to the game, whenever it was possible. They did this by making sure statistics
and scores were available to the servicemen.111 Occasionally there were equipment shortages, but
the fact that they had the opportunity to play the game helped a lot in easing anxieties. Once
109
Idib., 9.
Idib., 9.
111
Ibid., 10.
110
Vaughn 32
they entered into active combat areas in the Pacific, however, recreational possibilities were
limited by the days or weeks that the vessels spent at sea. Because of this, the Marines did not
get to participate in baseball as much as the Army or Navy did.112
When there were baseball equipment shortages, the servicemen had to find a way to
occupy their time that did not involve a ball and bat. Despite the lack of equipment, the men still
wanted to play baseball, and they did. They just had to be creative and find a way to play
without a ball, bat, or glove. They tore off dead branches from trees to resemble a bat, but they
were unable to find anything that resembled a ball. Since there was no ball, they just pretended
like there was. They played “ghost baseball.” The pitcher pitched the “ball,” and if it was a
strike, the batter would swing. If it was a ball, the batter would just let it go. Players hit
homeruns, got caught in run downs, turned double plays, and argued with the umpire. It was
exactly like a real game, but there was no ball. The fact that there was no ball did not stop the
players from being entertained with the game they loved. A game of “ghost ball” was witnessed
by Marine Sergeant Dana Babcock. He was amazed at the love that the servicemen had for the
game, and he realized that baseball was grained into the hearts of his marines.113
Military officials realized that baseball could breakdown the monotony that stemmed
from military routines. Through baseball, servicemen could focus on the statistics of the game
rather than the horrors of war, even if it was only for brief periods of time. Special Services
officer Major Leon David held sports, in particular baseball, in high regard for its capacity to
dampen idleness and negative thoughts and to direct servicemen’s devotion from solitary
activities to more creative group activities. The military endorsed organized team sports within
its defenses because of their ability to deliver “validation” to servicemen. Baseball could also
112
113
Ibid., 11.
Ibid., 3.
Vaughn 33
provide wholesome exercise that prepared men for the “rigors of combat conditions,” without
having to push them to the point of exhaustion.114
Playing baseball was not the only way that servicemen were affected by the sport. They
were also able to use the media to keep up with baseball back home. The Sporting News was a
huge contributor to maintaining morale among servicemen because it kept them up to date with
their favorite teams. In some areas, military outposts received more copies of The Sporting News
than any other publication. This indicated to the editors that it was vital to the Special Services.
There was a great deal of importance placed upon baseball information by the servicemen, and
paper companies wanted to make sure that they received their weekly baseball information.
National and local papers ran weekly advertisements shortly after the war began as a way to
encourage readers to purchase subscriptions, so soldiers and sailors could receive them at a
reduced price. The Sporting News was trying to do all it could to make sure that servicemen
received baseball information.115
It would be easy to say that The Sporting News was looking out for its own self-interest
by using propaganda to get people to subscribe to their magazine, in order for servicemen to
receive it at a reduced price. This does not seem to be the case though. One Marine was asked
years after the war if receiving information about professional teams and players actually helped
increase morale and relieve tension that the servicemen encountered. He concluded that:
“Information about the national pastime was very important to the overall mental wellbeing of his fellow Marines. Although fighting men were most concerned about simply
surviving, for many, following baseball did allow them to have a change of pace in their
mind in the middle of the hostilities.”
A Navy veteran also suggested that,
114
115
Ibid., 7.
Idib., 18.
Vaughn 34
“Baseball information provided him and his fellow servicemen with something tangible
that they could connect to. Reading about the Yankees or the Dodgers made the deck of
a destroyer in the middle of the Pacific seem a little more like home.”
It is easy to dismiss claims that baseball did not impact the morale of American soldiers, but
veterans of World War II proclaimed that it did indeed help them get through hardships of the
war.116
Americans went through great lengths to make sure servicemen received information
about professional teams and players. Not only did the American military supply magazines,
such as The Sporting News, to soldiers and sailors, but they also supplied radio broadcasts of
Major League games. This provided entertainment to sustain soldiers’ and sailors’ morale.117 In
areas where baseball and sporting news in general was scarce, radio broadcasts provided a facade
of order in hectic environments. In regions such as North Africa, the south Pacific, and Europe,
American servicemen had the opportunity to listen to delayed broadcasts of World Series games
and other random games. Even at sea, sailors had the opportunity to follow their favorite teams
and players, despite being hundreds of miles from land. General Dwight Eisenhower even
requested that an increasing number of broadcasts be supplied to his men stationed in North
Africa. He felt that they were lacking liveliness and decided that baseball would be a good way
to pick his men back up. There were times, however, that Special Services could not supply full
coverage of broadcasts of games, so they restored to including summarized scores, statistics, and
standings for the pleasure of the troops.118
Throughout the war, baseball news and information was filtered to soldiers and sailors
through media sources, but on rare occasions, military officials brought professional-caliber
baseball games to the men by arranging exhibition games with Major League players. For some,
116
Idib., 18.
Idib., 18.
118
Idib., 19.
117
Vaughn 35
it was a dream come true to play baseball with their favorite professional players. The military
also enlisted Hollywood figures and other entertainers to make appearances on the home front
and overseas, but for many military men, sports stars were preferred. Army Colonel M.J. Meyer
stated that actors, comedians, and singers were often times hard to accommodate for, and as a
whole, they were not very cooperative. The Colonel noted, “We need real troupers here and
when we get them the boys appreciate their stuff more than any other kind of entertainment.”
When military officials were trying to get professional ball players to come to their bases, it was
no surprise that The Sporting News helped set up the accommodations.119
In 1943, editors for The Sporting News pushed for an overseas tour of Major League
Baseball games that would be used to boost the morale for America’s servicemen.120 They
observed that Hollywood stars had already completed a tour out of goodwill and thought that
baseball should undertake one as well. For several months, The Sporting News pitched ideas for
a Major League overseas tour by pronouncing that it would be a “tremendous opportunity to
assist vitally in the war effort by entertaining soldiers and sailors.” Lieutenant Harold Kopp
reiterated the sentiments of The Sporting News by insisting that a big league tour would infinitely
improve morale, even if actual exhibitions could not be scheduled. Major League teams were
not able to send entire teams because of scheduling conflicts; therefore, an actual tour never
occurred. A small group of big league players, however, were able to take time out of their
schedules to mingle with troops.121
The Sporting News went on to praise “Lefty” Gomez, Stan Musial, Frankie Frisch, Dan
Litwhiler, Fred “Dixie” Walker, and Hank Borowy for “their unselfish answers to the call of our
119
Idib., 19.
Idib., 18.
121
Idib., 20.
120
Vaughn 36
men in the service, who everywhere cry for entertainment… from the home sector.”122 The
arrival of Major League players remained an annual occurrence during the war. Their impact
was not overwhelming because of the modest amount of players involved, the limited amount of
baseball actually played, and the small number of servicemen with whom the players actually
interacted with. Since all the tours occurred during the winter, there was a minimal amount of
baseball that was played. Since they could not play baseball, the servicemen and professional
ball players often intermingled and discussed important events of the previous season, as well as
life back in America.123
Baseball was used as a morale booster on military bases overseas, but what most people
do not know is that baseball had a huge impact on prisoners of war during World War II. One
might wonder why baseball was even played in war camps at all. The truth is that prisoners did
not have a say in the matter. Japanese guards summoned American prisoners to play baseball
with them, and refusal to play baseball would have been dangerous and awkward. Even though
the prisoners were made to play baseball, for the most part did not mind. The prisoners
thoroughly enjoyed playing because they were able to recreate, on a small scale, the world from
which they left behind. The opportunity to play baseball was a chance to establish “Little
America.”124
Participants from all walks of life were prisoners of war, and baseball brought them
together. There were a few professional baseball players in these camps, and for the first time in
military history, there were women in prisoner of war camps.125 When people got to Kriegies,126
122
Idib., 20.
Idib., 21.
124
Tim Wolter, POW Baseball in World War II: The National Pastime behind Barbed Wire, (Jefferson, NC:
Mcfarland, 2001), 2.
125
Idib., 3.
126
German word for prisoner of war camps, according to Tim Wolter, POW Baseball in World War II: The National
Pastime behind Barbed Wire. (Jefferson, NC: Mcfarland, 2001), 9.
123
Vaughn 37
Germans tried to separate the prisoners by rank, nationality, and country. Since America joined
the war late, the camps were already well organized and established, and Americans were just
thrown into the mix.127 Baseball did not thrive in every camp; however, it acted as a morale
booster when it was present.128 Life as a prisoner of war was hard and a horrific experience, but
at times, baseball could be used as a reminder of life far beyond the barbed wire fences of camp.
Baseball was used as a bridge between life as a captive and life as a free man.129
Athletic equipment, and baseball equipment in particular, was not something that just
appeared in prisoner of war camps. It was not already there when soldiers arrived. The majority
of athletic equipment was collected by the Young Men’s Christian Association. Most of the
equipment was commercial equipment, which included baseball and softball equipment. It was
transported, stored, and distributed to camps by the International Red Cross. The YMCA
collected a great deal of equipment. According to a study the YMCA did in 1945, 1,754,254
sports articles were shipped from the United States to Europe in two years.130 This equipment
was used to provide entertainment for servicemen, and it was also used to increase morale for
prisoners of war.
There were also problems with baseball that occurred in prisoner of war camps that were
parallel to those in Major League Baseball. There were complaints about umpires, allegations of
recruiting irregularities, and betting on games with cigarettes and chocolate bars.131 These were
minor problems, but the biggest problem was that of sportsmanship. There was bad
sportsmanship between prisoners themselves and guards and prisoners. It would not seem likely
to have problems of sportsmanship between fellow prisoners because they had to stick together,
127
Idib., 9.
Idib., 65.
129
Idib., 5.
130
Idib., 13.
131
Idib., 13.
128
Vaughn 38
but sportsmanship was a problem because the men were so competitive when it came to baseball.
On the other hand, there were problems between guards and prisoners because the guards “were
always right.” This did not settle well with Americans because baseball was a sport they loved,
and they wanted to be the ones that won every game, not their captors.132 They had to
understand though that they were the ones that were prisoners, not the guards. There were also
other problems that occurred between the guards and prisoners, during games. For example,
when batted balls went over the fence, Americans were not allowed to go get them. They either
had to stay out there, or the guards would go get them. This posed a problem for Americans
because they did not like being dependent on the Japanese guards because it brought them
satisfaction. It was not very likely for Americans to go against the wishes of the Japanese
because they could be shot if they did; they were in fact in prisoners of war.133
Baseball equipment was also used for other things because actual baseball. Baseball
games were scheduled as diversion activities in active camps where tunneling was prevalent, so
the guards were preoccupied with the game, instead of the prisoners. There were also persistent
efforts to dispose of tunnel dirt on the baseball playing grounds. Prisoners would hide dirt in
their clothes and when they got to the playing field, they would discretely empty it out; they were
simply doing a little bit of grounds keeping. There were also programs to smuggle escape
equipment into prisoner of war camps, such as the secret program MIS-X.134 When baseball
equipment was brought in by the Red Cross International, sometimes there would be hidden
messages, maps, or compasses in the equipment. One of the easiest ways to store hidden
132
Idib., 32.
Idib., 17-18.
134
Idib., 81.
133
Vaughn 39
equipment was through hallowed out bats. Even if no one ever used the materials to escape, they
were there for their convenience.135
There were several Major League Baseball players that were captured by German or
Japanese soldiers and sent to prisoner of war camps. One of the professional baseball players
that were captured was Mickey Grasso. Sergeant Grasso was stationed in North Africa and a
member of the Boston Red Sox; he experienced a smooth transition from being a ball player to a
soldier.136 He was captured during a German counterattack to an American invasion. He was
sent to Stalag IIIB, where he was a prisoner of war for two years, three months, and ten days.
Although he never commented publicly about being a prisoner of war, his fellow soldiers said he
was a standout baseball player in the camp. At the time of his liberation, he was sixty pounds
underweight and not physically where he needed to be as a ball player.137 Grasso was praised for
his workmanlike attitude and went through exceptional lengths to get back to where he was
physically before the war. He went on to continue his baseball career, where he was very
successful.138
There are many stories of baseball players that were captured and sent to prisoner of war
camps, but there are a few as uplifting as that of Bert Shepard. Shepard became a victim of the
draft in 1942. He was a fighter pilot, and he flew his thirty fourth and final mission on May 21,
1944. He was not scheduled to fly that day, but his team needed him for an expedition, so he
willing went.139 His plane flew into antiaircraft fire, and his plane crashed. In the crash, he
wounded his leg and chin, while being knocked unconscious.140 He woke up two weeks later in
135
Idib., 84.
Idib., 85.
137
Idib., 88.
138
Idib., 89.
139
Idib., 101.
140
Idib., 102.
136
Vaughn 40
a German hospital, and his right leg had been amputated below the knee. Fellow POW Don Erry
fashioned Shepard a prosthesis out of scrap metal. Months later he began “rehabilitation” by
working on baseball fundamentals. He played first base during baseball games with fellow
POWs, and he bunted on offense. Since he was primarily a left-handed pitcher, losing his right
leg was a major downfall because he needed it to be able to push off the rubber. When Shepard
was released from war camp, he signed with the Senators as a coach and a batting practice
pitcher, but they soon realized that the man with one leg could help them drastically.141 He went
on to play Major League Baseball for ten seasons.142 Shepard claimed that baseball was a big
part of his life while he was a POW. It acted as a distraction from what was going on around
him, and he was able to keep his spirits up, while waiting to go back home.143
There are also stories of men that were so influenced by baseball in prisoner of war
camps that they decided to pursue careers in baseball but not as players. Augustine Donatelli is a
prime example. He enlisted in the military at the age of twenty-six, after the bombing of Pearl
Harbor. He was a B-17 tail gunner in the Army, and was shot down while participating in his
seventeenth mission in 1945. He spent fifteen months in captivity, where he spent the majority
of his time participating in baseball games. Donatelli was a good ball player, and he had an
uncanny desire for the game. After getting his feel of playing shortstop, Donatelli decided that
he was better suited to be an umpire. His body was not in the condition to play baseball, but he
wanted to be connected to the game, so he thought umpiring would give him the opportunity for
that.144 After the Russians liberated Donatelli’s camp in 1945, he decided that he did not want to
return to the coalmines; he wanted to be an umpire instead. He proved to be a successful umpire
141
Idib., 104.
Idib., 105.
143
Idib., 104.
144
Idib., 91.
142
Vaughn 41
in the Major Leagues, and he was an umpire in the National League for twenty-four years.
Donatelli was able to discover his calling to be an umpire because baseball was played in
prisoner of war camps. If it was not for that, Donatelli did not know if he would have spent his
life umpiring baseball games.145
In the first two years that America participated in World War II, Major League Baseball
was lucky enough to not have any players killed in action, but their luck would run out.146 There
were a few Major League Baseball players that were killed in action, but one in particular died a
hero: John Pinder. Pinder participated in the D-Day invasion at Normandy, along with thousands
of other brave soldiers. During the invasion, his team’s radio equipment was left on their boat,
and he turned back to retrieve it. In this attempt, he was shot and killed. He gave his life bravely
so that the other members of his team would benefit. He was later awarded the Congressional
Medal of Honor for his heroics.147 When Major League Baseball found out the exact date that
the invasion at Normandy was going to occur, all baseball games were canceled, so the country
could have a chance to pray because five thousand men were participating on a more important
field in Europe.148
On a majority of military bases, at home and abroad, baseball was one of the most
popular choices for athletic activities. It was not only prevalent among servicemen but also
military leaders as well. Military leaders were determined to utilize athletics to improve the
quality of morale of American servicemen. As stated previously, baseball helped to unify the
soldiers, but it also brought out the competitive side of servicemen as well. Proponents of
military baseball emphasized other important benefits for soldiers and sailors who engaged in
145
Idib., 92.
Finoli, 59.
147
Wolter, 150.
148
Idib., 149.
146
Vaughn 42
America’s pastime.
Even before World War II, General Douglas MacArthur realized that
athletic programs would be important for servicemen. He stated that:
“Nothing more quickly than competitive athletics brings out the qualities of leadership,
quickness of decision, promptness of action, mental and muscle coordination,
aggressiveness, and courage. And nothing so readily and so firmly establishes that
indefinable spirit of group interests and pride which we know as morale.”
Everything that Gen. MacArthur implies in this quote is true and relevant to baseball and war.
Baseball brings out qualities of leadership, as well as quick decision making, promptness of
action, mental and muscle coordination, aggressiveness, and courage. War does the same thing.
It might not seem like it at the time of competition, but baseball helped prepare men for battle. It
did not literally help them shoot a gun, but it enabled them to practice skills that would be useful
in combat.149
There was also a widely held assumption that Americans were more skilled than other
nations’ servicemen in certain areas of war because of baseball. One of these areas was the art of
grenade throwing. Many concluded that this was because of America’s background in baseball.
The Sporting News expanded on this assumption that performance on the baseball field and the
battlefield were directly correlated. They stated that the game “instilled a sense of co-ordination
that is important in modern warfare.” This so called “sense of co-ordination” contributed
directly to military success by enabling American servicemen to become more efficient, flexible,
and innovative during pressure situations in combat. Marine Captain O. W. Todd, who
supervised the Pacific League’s San Diego Padres, felt that baseball was “paying off in the
Pacific by [making Americans] better fighters.” It is not absolutely certain if baseball directly
affected the performance of American servicemen, but it is certain that baseball was a huge part
of military life. Colonel Theodore Bank, director of Army’s Athletic and Recreational Division
149
Idib., 8.
Vaughn 43
during World War II, insisted that sports such as baseball were “not a supplement to [the Army’s
training] program; they [were] a basic part of it.”150
Baseball was used heavily in mandatory athletic participation. It was most prevalent with
the servicemen because it was something that they had in common with just about everyone.
Baseball was not only used as a transition from civilian to military life; it could be used as a
practical solution to the problems caused by inevitable stages of inactivity. Baseball was used as
an activity during down time. Servicemen might spend a couple of hours or even all day waiting
for a shipment, and they needed something to occupy their time with. Officers could have used
this time to squeeze in extra training, but they feared they would be over training their men.
Instead, they played baseball. Some might think that combat was the most excruciating part of
the military experience, although it might have been to some, but many soldiers would say that
the time spent away from combat was the toughest. It was arguably the most difficult because
they had time for their mind to wonder and think about what was going on around them. They
had time to let their morale deflate, which is why they played baseball. They did not want that
extra time to think about diversions in their lives.151
The main reason for athletic programs in the military was to boost morale. The athletic
programs were not just strictly instituted for baseball, but there is a reason that baseball was the
main recreation activity. Shortly after Pearl Harbor was raided, the War Department identified
baseball as the favorite sport of servicemen. According to the study done by the War
Department, approximately seventy five percent of American servicemen enjoyed participating
in viewing baseball and softball games more than any other sport. As a result of this study, there
was a valiant attempt to ensure that soldiers and sailors had an ample supply of equipment to
150
151
Idib., 8.
Idib., 10.
Vaughn 44
play the game they enjoyed. After the study was done, they knew baseball was going to have an
effect on the morale of the men, and they were hoping it would be a contributing factor to the
efficiency and effectiveness in combat as well.152
To turn soldiers and sailors attention away from the front lines, military leaders often
relied on baseball to placate the athletic appetites of servicemen. Obviously, not every man is
going to feel the same about baseball. The sport might affect some servicemen significantly, or
it could have little to no effect on others. Despite of one’s level of enthusiasm for the sport,
baseball maintained a prominent place in servicemen’s lives during the war.153
When the United States joined the allied forces in World War II, many people were
skeptical of how America was going to find a way to keep her morale up. People could have
turned to jobs, Hollywood entertainment, or even education as an outlet for the war; America
could have relied on these things to keep the morale of the country up. Instead, they looked to
baseball. They did not just look to professional baseball to keep their spirits up. They relied on
baseball games in the streets, baseball games on military bases, and baseball games in prisoner of
war camps; they also relied on information about baseball. To Americans, baseball was more
than a game; it was a way of life. It provided entertainment and an escape from the reality of
war.
For different people baseball meant different things. For children, it was a form of
entertainment. They considered professional baseball players to be their idols. Children played
baseball in the back yard, and they pretended to be Joe DiMaggio. Baseball was their dream
land. For Americans left at home during the war, baseball served as a distraction from the reality
of what was occurring overseas. For soldiers and sailors, baseball was one of the most important
152
153
Ibid., 2.
Ibid., 3.
Vaughn 45
things that were available to them. Baseball served as a morale booster for these men and
women who were giving up their lives to protect the ones left at home. Baseball meant much
more than a game to these people. It was their entertainment, their free time, their bonding time,
their physical conditioning, and their escape from reality. Baseball was their drug.
In For the Good of the Country, David Finoli describes baseball as a national pastime.
He believes that baseball was an overarching theme for World War II because it provided a boost
in morale that was unprecedented. He believes that America would not have been the same
during World War II if it was not for baseball. He does not say that the outcome of the war
would be different, but he implies that the morale of the country would have been different.
Finoli believes that:
“Roosevelt was correct. The country needed baseball to provide a much needed lift
during times when it was unsure whether or not the country would even be able to exist
in the democratic life it had been accustomed to for some 166 years.”154
Other people believe this to be true as well. Baseball gave America exactly what it needed in a
time when it needed something drastic. The Sporting News suggested that, “No game has taken
so strong a hold on Americans as baseball.” Other sporting papers believed that baseball was “a
part of our very existence as people and actual necessity.”155
154
155
Finoli, 321.
Harold, Seymour, Baseball: The Early Years, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1960), 345.
Vaughn 46
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