Educational Research:
Qualitative Research Methods
EDU 8603
Educational Research
Richard M. Jacobs, OSA, Ph.D.
Qualitative research...

Commonly called “interpretive
research”
…its methods rely heavily on “thick”
verbal descriptions of a particular
social context being studied

Is useful for describing or answering
questions about particular, localized
occurrences or contexts and the
perspectives of a participant group
toward events, beliefs, or practices
…a helpful process for exploring a
complex research area about which
little is known

Illuminates the “invisibility of
everyday life”
…by making the familiar strange, more
examined, and better understood
Qualitative methods...
historical research  grounded theory
 ethnography
 phenomenology
 case study
 symbolic interaction
 ethology
 action research
 ethnomethodology


historical research
…studies available data to study,
understand, and interpret past events

ethnography
…studies cultural patterns and
perspectives of participants in their
natural settings

case study
…examines the characteristics of a
particular entity, phenomenon, or
person

ethology
…compares the origins, characteristics,
and culture of different societies

ethnomethodology
…studies how people make sense of
their everyday activities in order to
behave in socially accepted ways

grounded theory
…investigates how inductively-derived
theory about phenomenon is grounded
in the data of a particular setting

phenomenology
…considers how the experience of
particular participants exhibits a
unique perspective

symbolic interaction
…investigates how people construct
meaning and shared perspectives by
interacting with others

action research
…teacher-initiated, school-based
research used to improve the
practitioner’s practice by doing or
changing something
Generally speaking, qualitative
researchers….
…spend a great deal of time in the
settings being studied (fieldwork)
…rely on themselves as the main
instrument of data collection
(subjectivity; intersubjectivity)
…analyze data using interpretative lenses
…employ expressive language and voice
in descriptions and explanations
…seek depth of perspective through
ongoing analysis (i.e., “waves of data”)
…judged in terms of believability,
trustworthiness, coherence, and the
logic underlying researcher’s
interpretations
The general characteristics of
qualitative research...
Data sources are real-world situations
 Data are descriptive
 Emphasizes a holistic approach
(processes and outcomes)
 Data analysis is inductive
 Describes the meaning(s) of research
finding(s) from the perspective of the
research participants

Uses inductive reasoning…
…involves developing generalizations
from a limited number of specific
observations or experiences
…highly dependent on the number and
representativeness of the specific
observations used to make the
generalization
• Issues in qualitative research...
a. gaining entry
b. contacting potential research
participants
c. selecting participants
d. enhancing validity and reducing
bias
e. leaving the field
a. gaining entry...



access is very much dependent upon
the researcher’s personal characteristics
and how others perceive the researcher
may require considerable negotiation
and compromise with a gatekeeper
trust is earned, not given
b. contacting participants...



gaining access
dealing with gatekeeper(s)
issues of building trust and
ensuring confidentiality and
anonymity
c. selecting participants...


the goal is to get the deepest
possible understanding of the
setting being studied
requires identifying participants
who can provide information about
the particular topic and setting
being studied


is fraught with difficulties in
identifying and selecting an
appropriate number of participants
who can provide useful information
about the particular topic and setting
being studied
utilizes purposive sampling

types of purposive sampling…
…maximum variation
…homogeneous
…critical case
…theory-based
…(dis)confirming case
…snowball (chain)
…extreme (deviant) case
…typical case
…intensity
…politically important case
…random purposeful
…stratified purposeful
…criterion
…opportunistic
…combination (mixed)
…convenience

two general guidelines: the number of
participants is sufficient when…
…the extent to which the selected
participants represent the range of
potential participants in the setting
…the point at which the data
gathered begins to be redundant
(“data saturation”)
The threats to validity in qualitative
studies...
observer bias…
…invalid information resulting from the
perspective the researcher brings to
the study and imposes upon it
observer effects…
…the impact of the observer’s
participation on the setting or the
participants being studied
d. strategies to enhance validity and
to reduce bias...



extend the time for observing the
setting
include more participants to make
the study more representative
focus upon building participant trust
in order to access more detailed and
honest data



identify biases and preferences,
seek them out by asking others
work with another researcher and
compare field notes and impressions
from independent observations
after observations are completed,
offer participants an opportunity to
validate accuracy of the verbatims


journalize one’s own reflections,
concerns, and uncertainties during
the study and refer to them when
examining the data
carefully examine unusual or
contradictory results for
explanations (“outliers”)

utilize a variety of data sources to
confirm one another to corroborate
participant information
(“triangulation”)
e. leaving the field…

The question is when and how to
exit
…the bonds formed with study
participants complicate leaving
the setting
…time constraints
…when the amount of accessible
data is sufficient
The basic steps of qualitative
research...
1. Write a tentative research proposal
2. Intensive participation in a field
setting
3. Collect detailed data from field
activities
4. Synthesize and interpret the meanings
of the field data
5. Write the research report
1. The qualitative research proposal...






defines area of study
identifies setting or context of study
specifies the kinds of data to be
collected
describes methods to be used
provides the researcher’s rationale
for undertaking the study
identifies the study’s potential
contribution(s)
2. Intensive participation in a field
setting...



participation: as a participant
(“participant observer”) or
nonparticipant
approach to participation: overt or
covert
requires experiencing the situation
from the perspective of both an
observer and a participant
3. Collecting and analyzing data...


primary tools include observations
and interviews but can also include
personal and official documents,
photographs, recordings, drawings,
emails, and informal conversations
multiple data sources are normative

the researcher records descriptive
as well as reflective notes about
what one has seen, heard,
experienced, and thought about a
during an observation session

regarding field notes…
…put aside assumptions,
experience context first
…see phenomena through
participants’ perspective
…write up notes immediately
following an observation
…detail is critical: include date,
site, time, and topic on every set
of field notes; leave wide margins
for writing impressions; use only
one side of a page of paper; draw
diagram of site (if necessary)
…list key words first, then outline
one’s observations
…keep the descriptive and reflective
sections separate
…use memos to record hunches,
questions, and insights after each
observation
…number the lines or paragraphs
for easy access

regarding interviews…
…the purpose is to explore and to
probe the interviewee’s responses
in order to gather in-depth data
…the interviewer inquires into the
interviewees’ attitudes, interests,
feelings, concerns, and values as
these relate to the context being
studied
…meaning is jointly constructed
between the interviewer and the
interviewee; meaning is not just a
construction on the part of the
interviewee
…be alert for openings in responses
to probe more deeply, starting
with mundane questions and
gradually easing into more
sensitive and more complex
questions
…interview data collection
techniques include taking notes
during the interview, writing notes
after the interview, or tape
recording and transcribing the
interview (the transcript is a
“verbatim”)
Interview do’s and don’ts...




Do listen more and talk less
Do follow up on what is not clear and
probe more deeply into what is
revealed
Don’t use leading questions; do use
open-ended questions (“probes”)
Don’t interrupt; do wait




Do keep interviewee(s) focused
Do ask for concrete details
Do tolerate silence and space between
interviewee’s responses; do allow the
interviewee time to think
Don’t be judgmental about or react to
an interviewee’s opinions, views, or
beliefs


Don’t engage in debate with an
interviewee
Do record everything the interviewee
says and note impressions of
interviewee’s nonverbal behavior
4. Synthesis and interpretation of the
meanings of field data...



a formidable task because data are
thick and deep as well as voluminous
and unorganized (“field notes”)
involves a systematic and iterative
process of searching, categorizing,
and integrating data (“managing
data”)
understanding emerges as data are
integrated
Analyzing field data…
data pieces
data categories
data patterns
• four-step iterative process of data
management...
a. reading and memoing to become
familiar with data and to identify
main themes
b. examining data to develop detailed
descriptions of the setting,
participants, and activities
c. classifying the data, including
categorization, coding, and
grouping into thematic units
d. interpreting and synthesizing the
organized data into general
conclusions or understandings

Involves working with field notes…
…deconstructing data into pieces
…reconstructing the data pieces
into categories
…identifying patterns for
understanding, synthesis, and
interpretation
• Criteria suitable for qualitative data
analysis...
a. credibility or plausibility
b. transferability
c. including a methods section

credibility or plausibility
…to demonstrate that the study was
conducted in such a manner as to
ensure that the subject was
accurately identified and described

transferability
…to demonstrate that the results of
the study are generalizable to
others in the original research
context or to contexts beyond the
original study

including a methods section
…to provide an in-depth description
of the processes and methods
used in the study
• Strategies for analyzing qualitative
data...
a. constant comparison method
b. negative case and discrepant data
methods
c. analytic induction

constant comparison method
…compares new evidence to prior
evidence to identify similarities
and differences between
observations

negative case and discrepant data
methods
…the search for contradictory,
variant, or disconfirming data
within the body of data collected
that provides an alternative
perspective on an emerging
category or pattern

analytic induction
…a process concerned with
developing and testing a theory in
order to generalize a study’s
findings
5. Writing the research report...




provide a setting where the data
were collected
identify characters who provide
information
describe the social action in which
the characters are engaged
offers an interpretation of what
the social action means to the
characters


offers an interpretation of what the
social action means to the characters
follow all APA Publication Manual
guidelines
Mini-Quiz…

True and false…
…Qualitative research methods are
rooted in the disciplines of
sociology, anthropology, and history
rather than in mathematics.
True

True and false…
…The central focus of qualitative
research is to provide understanding
of a social setting or activity from
the perspective of the research
participants
True

True and false…
…Empathic neutrality requires a
researcher to include one’s personal
experience and empathic insight as
part of the relevant data
True

True and false…
…An interviewer constructs the
meaning of the content of an
interview
False

True and false…
…One of the first issues in qualitative
research is to gain entry to a site
True

True and false…
…One indicator that an adequate
number of participants has been
selected is the extent to which the
selected participants represent the
range of potential participants in the
setting
True

True and false…
…Purposive sampling strategies are
especially useful in qualitative
research
True

True and false…
…A qualitative researcher should be
wary of potential participants who
are extremely eager to be included in
the study
True

True and false…
…A covert participant observer
participates as well as collects data
during an observation session
True

True and false…
…Each observation session has its
unique focus and interactions but is
guided by a protocol or list of issues
that frame the observation
True

True and false…
…In qualitative research, data analysis
begins as the researcher initiates
data management
False

True and false…
…An interviewer will almost always
meet face-to-face with an interviewee
while some observers will not.
True

True and false…
…Transcripts are the field notes of an
interview session
True

True and false…
…Data analysis and interpretation are
based on induction as the qualitative
researcher discovers patterns
emerging from the data and makes
sense of them
True

True and false…
…There are no predefined variables to
focus qualitative analysis of the data
True

True and false…
…Credibility or plausibility
demonstrates that the study was
conducted in such a manner that the
subject was accurately identified and
described
True

True and false…
…The process of analyzing qualitative
research data follows a sequential
four-step process
False

True and false…
…The ability of the researcher to
induce or construct meaning from
the data greatly influences the
duration and quality of the data
analysis
True

True and false…
…Implicitly or explicitly, a researcher
interprets data whenever the
researcher uses a conceptual basis
or understanding to cluster a variety
of data pieces into a category
True

Fill in the blank…
…Studying real-world situations as they
unfold naturally; nonmanipulative,
unobtrusive, and noncontrolling; open
to whatever emerges due to a lack of
predetermined constraints on
outcomes
naturalistic inquiry

Fill in the blank…
…Immersion in the details and specifics
of the data to discover important
categories, dimensions, and
interrelationships; begins by exploring
genuinely open questions rather than
testing theoretically derived
hypotheses
inductive analysis

Fill in the blank…
…The entire phenomenon is understood
as a complex system more than the
sum of its parts; the focus is upon
complex interdependencies not
meaningfully reduced to a few discrete
variables and linear, cause-effect
relationships
holistic perspective

Fill in the blank…
…A detailed, thick description; inquiry
in depth; direct quotations capturing
people’s personal perspectives and
experiences
qualitative data

Fill in the blank…
…Attention to process; assumes
change is constant and ongoing
whether the focus is upon an
individual or an entire culture
dynamic systems

Fill in the blank…
…The first level of qualitative inquiry
requires the researcher to be true
to, respectful of, and to capture the
essential details of the individual
context being studied
unique case orientation

Fill in the blank…
…To place findings in a social, historical,
and temporal context; dubious about
the possibility or meaningfulness of
generalizations across time and space
context sensitivity

Fill in the blank…
…The researcher’s passion is
understanding the world in all its
complexity, not proving something,
not advocating, not advancing
personal agendas, but understanding
empathic neutrality

Fill in the blank…
…The researcher resides in the study
context but disguises his or her
identity from the other participants
covert participation

Fill in the blank…
…The researcher’s openness to
adapting one’s research as
understanding deepens and/or
situations change; the willingness to
pursue new paths of discovery as
they emerge
design flexibility

Fill in the blank…
…The point at which the researcher
begins to hear similar thoughts,
perspectives, and responses from
more or all of the participants
data saturation

Fill in the blank…
…Providing information to a participant
about the nature and purpose of the
study
informed consent

Fill in the blank…
…The process of qualitative data
collection
fieldwork

Fill in the blank…
…The observer’s record about what
has been seen, heard, experienced,
and thought about during an
observation session
field notes

Fill in the blank…
…Evolving data analysis involves a
form of thinking on paper through
which the researcher describes one’s
mental explorations of ideas, themes,
hunches, and reflections about the
research topic
memo writing

Fill in the blank…
…An extensive, descriptive, and lucid
report of the researcher’s
observations, partially influenced by
what the researcher sees but mainly
by the detail and language the
researcher uses in constructing the
report
thick description

Fill in the blank…
…An purposeful interaction, usually
between two people, focused upon
one person attempting to access
information from another person
interview

Fill in the blank…
…The word-for-word transcript of an
interview session
verbatim

Fill in the blank…
…Unusual or contradictory results
from an observation or interview
outlier

Fill in the blank…
…The point at which the data gathered
becomes redundant
data saturation

Fill in the blank…
…Creating and organizing qualitative
data collected during the study
data management

Fill in the blank…
…The process of recording the
researcher’s initial thoughts and
early impressions of the data
memoing

Fill in the blank…
…The process where the qualitative
researcher provides an accurate
depiction of the settings and events
that took place in it which yields an
understanding of the context in
which the study took place
description

Fill in the blank…
…The process of breaking down the
data into smaller units, determining
the import of the units, and
organizing the units together again
in an interpreted form
classifying

Fill in the blank…
…A qualitative method for classifying
data where the researcher begins
with a preliminary hypothesis and
continuously refines it until there
are no examples of the revised
hypothesis not being upheld
analytic induction

Fill in the blank…
…A form of cross-validation that
seeks regularities in the data by
comparing different participants,
settings, and methods to identify
recurring results
triangulation

Analogies…
content : method
as
characteristics of a single person or
phenomenon : _______________
case study

Analogies…
content : method
as
a group’s cultural patterns and
perspectives : _______________
ethnography

Analogies…
content : method
as
the link between a group’s everyday
activities and its social structure :
_______________
ethnomethodology

Analogies…
content : method
as
the link between participants’
perspectives and social science
theory : _______________
grounded theory

Analogies…
content : method
as
the meanings and perspectives
gained by interactions :
_______________
symbolic interactionism

Analogies…
content : method
as
How participants experience a variety
of things : _______________
phenomenology

Analogies…
content : method
as
A change in student learning :
_______________
action research

Analogies…
quantitative : qualitative
as
population : _______________
setting

Analogies…
quantitative : qualitative
as
generalizability : _______________
transferability
This module has focused on...
qualitative research methods
…which describe or answer questions
about particular, localized
occurrences or contexts and the
perspectives of a participant group
toward events, beliefs, or practices
The next module will focus on...
action research
...teacher-initiated, school-based
research used to improve the
practitioner’s practice by doing or
changing something