Data preparation and memos
and other documents
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Transcription
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Kvale warns us to “beware of transcripts”.
Dangers =
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superficial coding
decontextualization
missing what came before and after the respondent’s
account
missing what the larger conversation was about
Transcription is a change of medium
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Who should do it?
Self
 Audio typist
 Dictation/speech recognition software
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Self
Tedious but good because it begins data
analysis
 Careful reading of whole transcript
produces new ideas etc.
 May have no choice if text in a language
few others can understand.
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Can use 3 stage process
Level 1: Log the tape in a fashion analogous to
creating a table of contents.
Level 2: Make a rough transcription. Need to be a
good typist
ignore spelling, punctuation & fine details
NEVER REWIND.
2-3 hours per hour of tape.
generally only readable by typist or someone
intimately familiar with the material,
Level 3: Full and accurate transcription.
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Audio typist
Quicker, but costs money, and typists
make mistakes and you need to check for
these. See handout.
 Helps if typist knows something about the
context of the interviews
 Typists can be vulnerable too.
 Checking can be used as an opportunity
to begin analysis.
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Dictation/speech recognition
software
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Still not good enough to transcribe voice from
tape or digital recording
Because needs v. good quality sound AND
learns your own accent as you use it.
Works best with American accent.
Use continuous speech software (IBM Via
Voice or Dragon Dictate)
Can listen to tape and then dictate to computer.
Still at best only 95% accurate.
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Checking with participants.
What if they disagree with transcript? Two options:
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Treat the new statements as new data
try to find why interviewee changed opinion:
1.
embarrassment over what was said now that it is frozen on
tape;
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intervening events which have altered the situation;
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a genuine change in opinion;
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pressure from peers or authority figures
Treat transition in opinion as interesting data itself.
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Interviewee may want previous statement erased or not
used.
Interviewees’ right.
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Transcription errors
Sources
 Poor quality recording A good microphone
helps. E.g. a battery powered lapel microphone.
 Poor quality transcribing machine. Sometimes a
hi-fi cassette player is better than a transcribing
machine, even though it does not have the
auto-rewind facility.
 Transcriber thinks they hear the phrase but gets
it wrong
See handout.
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Format of transcript
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Names. Use capitals for speakers
MARY C
 MARY
 I:
 or “IV:”
 or “INT
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Anonymisation
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Names and contextual names (places etc)
Keep original with real names, but keep
secure.
 Publish only anonymised versions
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Prepare text
Check for accuracy.
 Use […] for missing text
 Use [bribery?] for words you are not sure
about.
 Print with wide margins (for next stage –
coding)
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Structure
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Structured interviews
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Section format.
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e.g. with same questions
Use Q1, Q2 etc. consistently throughout
Put in a Heading style for NVivo.
Facilitates searching later
Use of heading style (Heading 1 etc) in NVivo
Allows use of automatic coding
Paragraphs
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Use if coding off-line.
‘On the beach’ coding
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Levels of transcription
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People don’t speak in sentences
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Repeat themselves
Hesitate, stutter
Use contractions (don’t, coz, etc)
Use filler words (like, y’know, er, I mean)
Options
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Just the gist
Verbatim
Verbatim with dialect
Discourse level.
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Just the gist
“90% of my communication is with … the Sales
Director. 1% of his communication is with me. I
try to be one step ahead, I get things ready, …
because he jumps from one … project to
another. …This morning we did Essex, this
afternoon we did BT, and we haven't even
finished Essex yet.”(… indicates omitted
speech)
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Verbatim
“I don’t really know. I’ve a feeling that they’re
allowed to let their emotions show better. I think
bereavement is part of their religion and culture.
They tend to be more religious anyway. I’m not
from a religious family, so I don’t know that
side of it.”
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Verbatim with dialect
“‘s just that – one o’ staff – they wind
everybody up, I mean, – cos I asked for some
money – out o’ the safe, cos they only keep
money in the safe – ’s our money – so I asked
for some money and they wouldn’t give it me
– an’ I snatched this tenner what was mine.”
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Conversation analysis
Bashir: Did you ever (.) personally assist
him with the writing of his book. (0.8)
Princess: A lot of people.hhh ((clears throat))
saw the distress that my life was in. (.) And
they felt it was a supportive thing to help (0.2)
in the way that they did.
See handout
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Document headers
= Session summary sheets or cover sheet
Pseudonym of person interviewed and other anonymizing
reference
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Date of interview
Topic and circumstances of interview
Name of interviewer
Source of field notes relevant to interview
Linked documents (e.g. previous and subsequent interviews
Source of document (full reference)
Initial ideas for analysis
In NVivo can be kept in document properties.
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Archiving
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Needs written consent from participants (difficult if not
done at the time of research)
May need copyright permission if used in publications
Ensure confidentiality by anonymizing names of people
and places (safe for participants if activities illegal or
illicit) safe for researcher (e.g. covert operations,
paramilitary groups).
Alternative is closure of material for a period or
restricted access. Need to specify.
Also, Field notes, documentation etc. needed to give
secondary researchers background information.
E S R C Qualitative Data Archival Resource Centre
(Qualidata) http://www.qualidata.essex.ac.uk/
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Data and Meta-data
Field notes.
 Keeps a record of what happened during
an observation, interview etc.
 Can include detailed notes taken during
an interview.
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Field notes
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Keeps a record of what happened during an
observation, interview etc.
Can include detailed notes taken during an
interview.
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Usually open-ended, loose, unruly and messy.
Interpretations of the world. To write fieldnotes you
have to be selective.
Include inscription and transcription.
• Inscriptions = descriptions of events and activities
• Transcriptions = records of informants’ own words and
dialogues.
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Field notes 2
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Descriptions of what people said and did, but
not simply a recording of the facts.
Emerson et al. - “descriptive writing embodies
and reflects particular purposes and
commitments, and it also involves active
processes of interpretation and sense-making”.
Accumulates into a corpus. Forms basis for
qualitative analysis.
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Field notes 3
Write up as soon as possible (before
detail is forgotten).
 Need to distinguish:
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Recording what happened, i.e. describing
things that went on
 Recording your own actions, questions and
reflections on what went on.
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Case Summary
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Summary or Précis of the case
Identify what is essential to the case
Identify what is special/peculiar
Get familiar with issues, themes, ideas
Recursive abstraction
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datasets are summarized, summaries are further
summarized, etc. Produces a more compact
summary
But, poor initial summary may lead to poor recursive
summary. Need to document steps
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Memos
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Theorizing and commenting about codes as
you go along
Idea from Grounded Theory
Notes to yourself
Glazer’s classic definition
“… the theorizing write-up of ideas about codes and
their relationships as they strike the analyst while
coding… it can be a sentence, a paragraph or a few
pages… it exhausts the analyst’s momentary
ideation based on data with perhaps a little
conceptual elaboration.”
Glazer, B (1978)Theoretical Sensitivity: Advances in the methodology of
grounded theory Mill Valley CA: Sociology Press.
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Typical uses for memos
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A new idea for a code
“Place holding” - just a quick hunch
Integrative discussion (e.g. of previous reflective
remarks
As dialogue amongst researchers
To question quality of data.
To question original analytic framework.
What is puzzling or surprising about a case
As alternative hypotheses to another memo
If you have no clear idea but are struggling to find one.
To raise a general theme or metaphor.
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Memos 2
Memos should be dated and linked to
places in field notes, case analysis
discussion, case summaries, codes,
documents etc.
 Write in margin or separate sheet, linked
to data.
 Computers a great help with linking
See handout
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Categorising memos
Organise into four categories. Mark each type
using letters in brackets.
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Observation notes (ON): As concrete and detailed as possible
about what you saw, heard, felt, tasted etc.
Methodological notes (MN): Notes to yourself about how to collect
‘data,’ – who to talk to, what to wear, when to phone, and so on.
Theoretical notes (TN): Hunches, hypotheses, connections,
alternative interpretations, critiques of what you are doing/ thinking/
seeing.
Personal notes (PN): These are your feelings about the research,
who you are talking to, your doubts, anxieties and pleasures.
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Guidelines for memos
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Always give priority to writing memos, while the flash of insight
remains.
Jot down memo as the idea occurs
Begin when first field data comes in and continue till report is written.
Keep separate from data
Indicate what’s just a hunch
Modify memos during analysis (it’s not the data)
Keep list of codes handy to help
Consider combining codes if memos on them look similar
Keep people/cases out of memos - they’re about the
codes/concepts/ideas – ??
Make sure memos are not just examples, they are about
ideas/concepts. – ??
(Mix of Dey, Miles and Huberman, Glaser and Stauss and Corbin.)
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Contact summary sheet
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After a field contact there is a need to
remember the main concepts, themes, issues
and questions raised.
Review field notes and write comments
Keep to a single sheet of paper
Do as soon as field notes written up but before
any coding is completed. Not too soon because
can bias thinking.
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Contact summary sheet 2
Can be used for:
 Guide to next contact
 To suggest revised codes,
 To help co-ordinate multiple researchers
 Re-orientation before next visit
 As data for further analysis.
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Contact summary sheet 3
Typical contents
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Contact type (visit/phone etc)
Site
Date of contact
Today’s date
Author
Main issues or themes that struck you on this contact?
Summary of information obtained (or not) for target
questions
Any other salient, interesting, illuminating, important
points
New or remaining target questions for next contact with
this site
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