U.S. Capitol
U.S. Capitol
House
1. Speaker’s Office
2. Committee on Ways
3. Cloakrooms
4. Mbr’s Retiring Room
5. House Chamber
6. Committee on Approp.
7. Minority Whip
8. House Reception Rm
9. House Conf. Room
10. Com. Meeting Rm.
11. Representatives Off.
12 Minority Leader
Central Area
13. Old House Chamber
14. Rotunda
15. Senate Rotunda
16. Old Senate Chamber
Senate
17. Senators’ Offices
18. Senate Conf. Room
19. Minority Leader
20. Majority Leader
21. Office of VP
22. Senators’ Recept. Rm.
23. Cloakrooms
24. Senate Chamber
25. President’s Room
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1. Bicameralism – two chambers [House and Senate].
2. Terms of Congress – two years.
3. Sessions of Congress – one year.
4. Reapportionment – Congress reapportions the House of
Representatives seats after each 10 year census. It used
to be one seat per 37,000. Now it is one seat per 650,000.
If we still had one per 37,000, we would have more than
30,000 representatives.
The first Congress had 65
representatives and 106 by the 3rd. There were 26 senators.
• 5. Gerrymandering – altering district lines for partisan
advantage. Odd shaped districts that have been drawn
to the advantage of the party in power.
• 6. Censure – Congress can reprimand only its own members for
such misconduct as abuse of privileges, financial corruption, or
misuse of public funds. In 1983, house members Daniel Crane
and Gerry Studds were censured. Crane lost the next election
but Studds kept his seat. Both were guilty of “affirmative action”
with the pages.
Crane
• 7. Expulsion – removal from the House or Senate because of
disorderly conduct [normally for treason or accepting bribes].
Expulsion requires a 2/3 concurrence of the membership of
that chamber. This occurred in 1980 after the ABSCAM bribery
scandal with Rep. Michael Myers from Pennsylvania [right].
• 8. Junkets – trips abroad by Congressman supposedly to
gain info but frequently the line between business and pleasure
is hard to determine.
• 9. Incumbent – current members of Congress. 90% of incumbents in
House are reelected & most of the incumbents in the Senate are reelected.
It costs millions to win a Senate seat and over $500,000 to win a House
seat. Each senator must raise about $15,000 a week for each of his 6 years.
The incumbency advantage
in House elections has been
consistently strong in recent
history. Senate elections are
clearly more volatile, dipping
as low as 55% re-election
rate in 1980, the year the
Reagan landslide helped sink
some Democratic incumbents.
10. Quorum – minimum number [51 in House and 218 in Senate]
required for a chamber to conduct business.
11. Filibuster – “talking a bill to death” in an attempt to get the
Senate to abandon or at least modify a bill. In 1947, Idaho’s
Glen Taylor spoke 8 & ½ hours on fishing, baptism, Wall Street,
and his children. The record is over 24 hours by Strom Thurman.
12. Cloture – a filibuster may be stopped in the Senate when 3/5
[60 members of the senators vote for cloture [this is usually hard to do].
A petition signed by 16 senators is necessary to initiate a cloture vote.
By historical tradition, the Senate gives its members unlimited debate.
13. Caucus – meeting of the majority party in the House.
14. Seniority – how long a member has served in Congress.
Seniority increases your clout.
15. Veto – when the president disapproves of a bill. It can be sent back to
Congress for revision. Can be overridden with a 2/3 vote in each chamber.
16. Pocket Veto – If Congress adjourns within 10 days,
the president can let the bill die by not signing it.
17. Whips – assistants to the majority and minority leaders. Whips
originated in the British House of Commons. They were named after the
“whipper in,” the rider who keeps the hounds together in a fox hunt,
because their job is to keep party members in line with the party’s positions.
The first page was 9-year old Graftin Hanson, sponsored in the 1830s by
senators Daniel Webster and Henry Clay. Older boys became “riding
pages” and delivered messages by horse. Back then many pages were
orphans or children of poor families whose plight had come to the
attention of a congressman. Today any high school student with good grades
[including an “A” in economics] can apply to his or representative. There are
71 in the House and 30 in the Senate. Must be 16, a junior, with a 3.0 GPA.
A year in Washington is a big plus on a college application, especially in the Ivy
League. Sexual equality came to the page system in 1971, when Senator Jacob
Javits – who had sponsored the first black page in 1965 – brought in the first girl.
Now about 50% of the pages are females. The page schedule calls for school,
work, study and sleep – leaving little time for mischief. Although they rotate among
a variety of jobs, most work as messengers. After their first week – which can mean
covering between 50 and 75 miles – most pages suffer from blisters and swollen
feet. The workday ends when Congress adjourns – usually in the late afternoon or
early evening. Homework & laundry fill the time until curfew at 10 p.m.
The dress requirements for males is a navy blazer, long sleeved white shirt, dark gray
slacks, dark socks, dark shoes, and a standard issue tie. For females, the dress requirement
is a navy blazer, a long sleeved white blouse, dark gray skirt or dark gray pants, dark shoes,
appropriate hose, and a standard issue tie that is provided during orientation. Shoes should be
solid black non-canvas low cut athletic shoes or comfortable black dress shoes. Pages are
expected to maintain a neat appearance and conservative hairstyle at all time and adhere to the
above dress code while working on the Capitol complex during business hours. Their pay is
$1,568 a month.
We live in Representative Democracy:
• “The people rule”… but not directly
• We do not make laws, collect taxes,
decide court cases, etc.
• CONGRESS is charged with the
most basic governmental function in
a democracy--- translating public will
into policy through laws.
• James Madison called Congress
“the first branch of National
Government”.
• Longest article of Constitution is
dedicated to it.
•Article 1, Section 1, Clause 1
“All legislative Powers herein granted
shall be vested in a Congress of the
United States which shall consist of a
Senate and House of
Representatives”.
James Madison
• Although the province of
Congress has fluctuated over
time, it has been the true
center of power in Washington.
• The movement of legislation
has become more difficult
with each year, and finding
time to debate is increasingly
difficult.
• Many charge Congress
with being the source of
government expansion.
•1 Congress is the legislative branch of the government.
2 Its major function is to make the law. It is charged with
the basic function of translating the public will into
public policy in the form of law.
•3 Constitution establishes a Bicameral Legislature – 2 houses.
• Bicameralism is a reflection of federalism. Each State is equally
represented in the Senate and by its population in the House.
• The Framers favored a bicameral Congress in order that one
house might act as a check on the other.
• Some people think the equal representation of the States in the
4 Senate should be scrapped as undemocratic. Alaska has only
500,000 residents. California, has more than 33 million. Yet
each has two senators.
It is hard work!
• The typical House
member serves on
about 6 committees
and subcommittees
• The typical Senator
serves on about 10
committees
and
subcommittees
• Often,
they are
scheduled to be in
more than one place
at a time (compact
schedules)
•5 Each term lasts for two years and is numbered from the first
term, which began on March 4, 1789.
The date for the start of each term is [20th Amendment – 1933]
6 at noon on the 3rd day of January, of every odd-numbered year.
• There are 2 sessions to each term of Congress – one each
year which includes breaks for holidays and vacations.
• Congress adjourns as it sees fit but normally remains in
session most of the year through November or December.
• Neither house may adjourn without the consent of the
other. Neither house may adjourn for more than three days
without the consent of the other.
•7 Only the President may call a special session of Congress. Only the
Senate has been called into special session on 46 occasions, but not
since 1933. Both houses have been called 26 times, the last time in
1948, by Truman, to consider anti-inflation and welfare measures.
• The fact that Congress meets almost year-round cuts down the need
for special sessions. The 109th congress met from 2005-2007.
House
Senate
Larger [435 members]
Shorter term of office [2 years]
Less flexible rules
Smaller constituencies
Power less evenly distributed
Less prestige
Less press and media coverage
Policy specialists
More committees
Acts more quickly
Smaller [100 members]
Longer term of office [6 years]
More flexible rules
Larger constituencies
Power more evenly distributed
More prestige
More press and media coverage
Policy generalists
Fewer committees
Acts more slowly
Focus
1. What are the terms, election, and
qualifications of the members of the house?
2. How reapportionment [redistribution of
seats] affects the make-up of the House?
What a congressional district is and how it
is formed.
What effect the “one-man, one-vote” rule
has had on the House and on electoral
politics.
Size and Terms:
8
9
10
• 435 members (is not fixed). The
1st & 2nd House had 65 members,
House of Representatives
rd
then went to 106 in the 3 .
435
• The House of Representatives is
apportioned on basis of population.
• Each state has at least one seat
(AK, DE, MT, ND, SD, VT and WY).
• District of Columbia, Guam, Virgin
Islands, and American Samoa elect
delegates (debate, not vote)- Puerto
Rico has a resident commissioner.
• Because members of the House
of Representatives have only 2 year
terms, they have to think about
reelection & “the folks back home”.
11 Congress reapportions [redistributes the seats] after each 10-year census.
Since 1912, the House has had 435 seats. [437 temporarily when Alaska
and Hawaii were admitted but went back to 435 in 1961].
The “permanent” size of 435 is permanent as long as they vote not to
change it.
Each seat in the House represents an average of
12 650,000 persons.
Elections are held on the Tuesday following the first
12 Monday in November of each even-numbered year.
• 435 members
• 2 year terms
• membership based on
population
• all states have at least
1 representative
Requirements
• Must be at least
25years old Citizen of
U.S. for at least 7 years
• Resident of state in
which elected
• Article 1 of the Constitution requires Congress to reapportionredistribute - the seats in the House after a decennial census.
• As the nation’s population grows and number of States were
admitted, the population increases.
• From 1800-1810, the House went from 142 seats to 186 seats.
• With the admission of Arizona and New Mexico in 1912, the number
became 435 and has not changed.
• The 1920 census put the
Congress at a loss… the
population increased but
the Congress was getting
too crowded to add
members, so--- they ignored
their constitutional duty.
7 States have only one
representative [Alaska, ND,
SD, DE, VT, MT, & WY].
14
Gerrymandering – Districts that have
been drawn to the advantage of the
dominant party in power. Some districts
are shaped like a shoestring, a dumbbell,
the letter Y, or some other odd form.
Gerrymandering normally takes one of two forms, “packing”
and “cracking”.
1. “Packing” – drawing the district lines of a congressional
district so they include as many of our political party’s
voters as possible.
2. “Cracking” – means dividing the opponents strength
among two or more districts. This makes it difficult to get
enough votes to win.
• The Constitution gives congress the power to discipline its own members
for wrongdoing. Action ranges from censure, a formal reprimand [disorderly
behavior], all the way to expulsion [removal from the House or Senate].
•15 Censure is normally misconduct such as financial corruption, misuse of
public funds, or abuse of privileges. The member could be stripped of
Michael
privileges, fined, and removed from positions of leadership.
Myers
•16 Expulsion requires the concurrence of two thirds of the
[ABSCAM]
membership of the chamber. In 1980, for the first time
1980
since the Civil War, the House of Representatives took the extreme
measure of expelling a member. The representative was convicted of
bribery after an FBI undercover operation code-named ABSCAM. In which a
bureau agent posed as a wealthy Arab sheik seeking various favors.
• In 200 years, the House has expelled 5 members. Three in 1861 for their
“support of rebellion.” In 1980, Michael Myers [Pennsylvania] was
expelled for corruption after accepting $50,000 in the ABSCAM probe.
•
In 1983, the House voted to censure Daniel
•
Crane & Gerry Studds. Both had sexual
•
relations with congressional pages [Studds
•
with a male page]. Crane lost the next
•
election but Studds kept his seat.
Studds
In a 1980 FBI sting operation, The FBI created a front organization called
Abdul Enterprises, Ltd. Its agents then posed as associates of an Arab sheik
and offered selected public officials money or other considerations in exchange
for special favors. The videotaped meetings netted Senator Harrison Williams
& Representatives Richard Kelly, Michael “Ozzie” Myers, Frank Thompson,
Raymond Lederer & John Jenrette [who was also known for having sex with
his wife on the Capitol steps]. Most notorious was Richard Kelly, who was
seen on the videotape stuffing $25,000 in cash in his jacket pocket, and then
asking “Does it Show?”
The Six Congressmen were convicted of Bribery
and conspiracy in separate trials in 1981. Another Congressman, John
Murphy, was convicted of a lesser charge. The FBI's tactics raised questions
about entrapment, and the conviction of Kelly was overturned in 1982. Most of
the politicians resigned or did not seek reelection when their terms expired, but
Myers had to be kicked out. He became the first House member to be expelled
since the Civil War. Williams did not resign until his expulsion was imminent.
The constitution grants congress the power to impeach, or bring formal charges
against, any member of the executive or judicial branch of government accused
of misconduct or wrongdoing.
Impeachment is not a determination of guilt. Only the House can bring
charges of impeachment [formal charges] which only requires a majority vote.
It goes to the Senate where it requires 2/3 vote for conviction.
Only 14 officials have ever been impeached by the House – 2 presidents,
one senator, one supreme court justice, and ten federal judges. The
Senate convicted 5 of these officials. All 5 were federal judges. The 2
presidents impeached were Andrew Johnson and Bill Clinton. Both were
acquitted in the Senate. In 1974, the House Judiciary Committee
recommended impeaching President Richard Nixon, but Nixon resigned
from office before the case came to a vote in the full House.
In the days before TV, the
only way to view an event
such as the impeachment
trial of President Andrew
Johnson was to obtain a
ticket like this.
• The House is “the Judge of Elections,
Returns, and Qualifications of its own
Members”… so it can decide not to seat
a member-elect if he/she is challenged.
• They can refuse to seat a member
with a majority vote, punish members
for disorderly behavior by majority
vote, & expel members with a 2/3 vote.
• James Traficant was expelled in 2002 for
bribery and he & his toupee went to prison.
James Traficant [420-1]
• The Congress has used its power…
in 1900 it refused to seat Brigham H.
Roberts of UT because he was a
polygamist.
• In 1969, after the Powell v.
McCormack case, the Court stated that
age, citizenship, and residence was the
only criteria that could be considered…
no one has been excluded since.
• Often members of Congress will
resign before suffering any punishment.
Size:
• Constitution says the Senate
“shall be composed of two
Senators from each state”.
• By the end of the First Congress
(1791) there were 26 members.
17 • 100 Senators represent 50 states.
• Framers hoped small size would
make it more enlightened than the
House which they though would be
impulsive. The Framers reinforced
this by giving them longer terms19
and more stringent qualifications.
18 •They are elected at large from
20
each State.
• Madison and Wilson saw a
“necessary fence” against the
“fickleness and passion” of the
21
House. Senators represent the
entire State, which has broader
interests and is more diverse.
Senators are chosen for six-year
terms. The terms are staggered.
A third of them -33 or 34 expire
every two years. The Senate is a
continuous body [all of its seats
are never up for election at the
same time.
A Senator must be 30 years old
and been a citizen for 9 years,
and a inhabitant for his State.
Election:
• Originally, the Constitution
provided for Senators to be
chosen by State legislatures.
• This changed in 1913 with
the ratification of the 17th
Amendment allowing the public
to directly vote for their Senators.
• Prior to 1913, many senators
were popular and qualified
people… but maneuvering and in-fighting caused problems in the States.
• Often, Senators and their supporters would buy votes from State
legislators to win their seat.
• By the late 1800’s, the Senate became known as the “Millionaires Club”.
• Adding the 17th Amendment was a difficult task because 2/3 of the
Senate would not approve it (2 occasions), but they bowed to public
pressure in 1912.
As Washington said to Jefferson, “We shall pour House
legislation into the senatorial saucer to cool it.”
Term:
• Senators serve 6 year terms and there
are no term limits.
• Robert C. Byrd (D-WV) has served the
longest since January 3, 1959 to present
Election Number of
Year Senate Seats
(almost 52 years).
• Senate terms are staggered with only 1/3
up for reelection every two years (33-34
Senate elections).
• The Senate is a “continuous body”
meaning all of its seats are not up at any
given time.
Maryland Senate Race 2006
• The 6 year terms insulate Senators
making them less susceptible to the pleas
of special interest groups.
• Senators are less likely to be focused on
special interest too because they have
larger constituencies… they are more likely
to look at “the big picture”.
22 • The Senate is a more “elite” group who
gain more media attention than their House
colleagues, champion public policy issues,
and sometimes run for the presidency.
Ben Cardin (D) Michael Steele (R)
• 100 members
• 6 year terms
• 1/3 are up for reelection
every 2 years
• every state gets 2
senators
Requirements
• Must be at least 30
years old
• Citizen of U.S. for
at least 9 years
• Resident of state in
which elected
Like the House, the Senate may judge the
qualifications of members and can exclude
members with a majority vote.
15 members of the US Senate have been
expelled since its creation… 1 in 1797
(William Blount) for treason and fourteen
senators in 1861 and 1862 for supporting
the Confederacy during the Civil War.
William Blount
Like in the House, Senators who find
themselves in trouble will usually resign
rather than face expulsion.
Senator Bob Packwood was threatened
with expulsion for acts of sexual harassment
Bob Packwood
against 29 women. So he resigned.
Senator David Durenberger [MN] was
found guilty by the Senate Ethics
Committee of Financial Misconduct, and
he chose not to run for reelection in 1994.
David Durenberger
• Almost all members are married, a few
are divorced, on average two children.
• 60% Protestant, 25% Catholic, 8%
Jewish.
• Lawyers: 1/3 in House, 1/2 in Senate
• Over 80% have college degrees, some
with advanced degrees.
• Only small number born outside of US
• There are several millionaires… but
others who rely on their congressional
paychecks.
• Average senator is in his second term,
average House member has served four
terms.
• 1/3 of senators once served in the
House.
Again--- Congress is made up of mostly
white, upper middle-class Americans.
Compensation
Salary- The current salary for
rank-and-file members of Congress
24 is $174,000 per year.
Leaders in Congress get more:
Senate Leadership
Majority Leader - $193,400
Minority Leader - $193,400
House Leadership
Speaker of the House-$223,500
Majority Leader - $193,400
Minority Leader - $193,400
25 Junkets [trips abroad] may be paid for by government. They are for the
purpose of obtaining info on legislation, but frequently they seem to be
more for entertainment. An Arkansas rep took his daughter & 6 members
of his staff and spent $56,000 in Brazil inspecting alcohol fuel pumps.
Compensation
26 They are free from arrest in all cases, except treason, felony,
and breach of the peace, when they are attending Congress
or on their way to and from Congress.
Non-salary compensation- “Fringe Benefits”
Tax deduction to maintain residence at home and in the DC area
Travel allowances to and from home to DC and back
Life and health insurance at low rates
Very generous retirement plan
Members who have participated in the congressional pension
system are vested after 5 years of service. A full pension is
available to Members 62 years of age with 5 years of service; 50
years or older with 20 years of service; or 25 years of service at any
age.
Provided with an office and funds to pay for staff
Granted “franking privileges” (ability to send mail
41
and other materials postage free.
Also… free printing, restaurants in capital, gyms, swimming
pools, free parking, services of Library of Congress… and more
Politics of Pay
Two Limits on Level of Congressional Pay
1. The President may veto congressional pay raises.
2. The Congress may show disapproval by voting against their
incumbents in the next election.
3. 27th Amendment (Do not get raise until reelected).
Congress has tried to avoid issue through…
Special tax breaks
Liberal pension plans increased travel and office funds
Other perks…
Issue will not disappear soon
It is important to pay members decent salaries.
Otherwise qualified members will not run for
office, or only the wealthy will…
HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES:
• Incumbents (those who already hold the office),
and they usually win reelection.
• Even in years of huge upheaval, incumbents still
win at a rate over 90%. (1994: 92%; 2006; 94%)
• In the House of Representative, incumbents not
only win 90%+, but a majority win with 60% of the
vote.
• Even when positions are closer, the incumbent
is still usually victorious.
SENATE:
• Incumbent senators generally have the same rate
of reelection, but often win by smaller margins.
• There is greater competition in a Senate; they
have a larger, more diverse, statewide race.
• Less contact with constituents and receive more
media than representatives (and are held more
accountable.
• Challengers in senate races are usually much
better known and have greater financial means.
• As a result of feelings of vulnerability,
incumbents are raising money at record rates,
traveling to their states and districts more often
sending more mail, & staffing more local offices.
Political
oddities...
Jim Webb
of VA and
Bob
Casey of
PA each
beat
incumbent
Senators
in 2006.
•
Voters are rarely aware of how their members of
Congress vote.
•
Coattails are discussed often, but they seem to be a
bit of a myth today.
•
Even a poor economy does not effect incumbents in
Congress very seriously.
•
Members of Congress engage in 3 primary activities
to increase the probability of their reelection
1. Advertising: takes place between elections;
incumbents make contact with constituents, stay
visible, and make frequent trips to their state or
district
2. Credit Claiming: provide personal and direct
service.
a. Casework: helping constituents as individuals
(making sure Grandma get her SS check;
appointments to service academies.
b. Pork Barrel Spending: ensuring federal
expenditures are spent on federal projects in
the state or district; contract for cities,
businesses, colleges, and institutions. They
must be able to claim credit for “doing
something for you”.
3. Position Taking: The positions a member of
Congress takes can make a difference in reelection
bids… particularly when they matter to constituents
and effects them personally, or when positions are
out of lines with the majority in the area they
represent (theses issues seem to matter more in
the Senate).
•
In most cases, members of congress face weak
opponents.
• Party loyalty is not as strong as
it once was, but it is still a good
predictor of voting behavior
• Most members of Congress
represent constituencies in which
their party is in the majority.
Defeating Incumbents:
• An incumbents tarnished by scandal
or corruption become vulnerable…
voters do take out anger at the polls.
• Reapportionment can also play a
role in the defeat of incumbents (ala
TX after 2000 census).
• In 1994, the republican revolution
defeated 35 incumbents in the House
and 9 in the Senate… In 2006,
Democrats picked up 30 house seats
and 5 in the Senate.
Before the 1930 census, Congress
wanted to avoid its previous lapse…
so it passed the Reapportionment Act
of 1929. It is still in place & established
“automatic reapportionment”.
It did 4 things:
1.
The House would remain at 435
members.
This was changed
temporarily in 1959 with Additions of
AK and HI. Today, each Congressman
represents about 650,000 constituents.
2. The Census Bureau will decide the
number of seats each state should
have.
3. When the Census Bureau’s plan is
ready, the President must send it to
Congress.
4. If the neither house rejects it within 60
days, the plan becomes effective.
Date: Congressional Elections are held on the same day in
every state since 1872 (first Tuesday after first Monday in
November of each even numbered year).
Off-Year Elections: Elections held in years between
presidential elections are called “off-year elections” (such as
2006). In most cases, the party in power (president's party)
does poorly in off year elections (see below).
• 435 members of the House are chosen by voters in 435 separate
congressional districts.
• These members are chosen in “single-member districts”, meaning
voters pick one candidate from that district to represent them rather
than an “at large” candidate (elected by state as a whole).
• Congress did away with the at large general ticket system in 1842
due to its lack of fairness.
• The 1842 law required state
legislatures to draw congressional
districts and required that they be
continuous.
• In 1872, Congress ordered that
Districts have “as nearly as
practicable an equal number of
inhabitants.”
• In 1901, Congress added that
districts of “compact area”
(comparatively small).
• Many of the requirements have
been ignored by States.
In 1812 Massachusetts Democrats holding office signed into law a
plan that reorganized their election districts. The plan strengthened
the Democrats by creating as many Democratic districts as possible
and weakened the Federalists by lumping them together in as few
districts as possible. Among the oddly-shaped districts that resulted was one
that zigged and zagged wildly over the map. When the map was displayed at a
party, an artist present added wings, claws, and an eye, and a tongue. “It’s a
salamander,” someone declared. Remembering that Governor Elbridge Gerry
had signed the redistricting plan into law, another member of the party spook
up: “It’s not a salamander, it’s a gerrymander!” From then on the unnatural
division of election districts has gone by the name of gerrymander.
The first gerrymander was a success. Although the Democrats received 51,000
votes and the Federalists 50,000, the Democrats managed to elect 29 State
senators, the Federalists only 11. Since then the gerrymander has had many
offspring.
In one redistricting plan a Massachusetts district was carved into the shape of a
snake – 25 miles long and as narrow as 2 miles wide. It was said that if you
went down the interstate with both car doors open, you would kill all the voters
in that district. Mississippi once had a district called the “shoestring” – 300 miles
long and only 40 miles wide-created to concentrate the largest number of black
voters in one area. After every reapportionment, this political beast appears.
• Longstanding patterns of wide population
variations among House districts and rural
dominance in state legislatures came to an end
with the Wesberry v. Sanders case in 1964
• The Court held that Georgia’s Congressional
districts population differences were so great that
they violated the Constitution.
• Ultimately they held that each mans vote needed
to count the same and didn’t if an area was not
apportioned properly (Known as “one person, one
vote”). Now cities have a much greater voice in
congress and state legislatures.
• This did not end gerrymandering, though. The
only real restriction on gerrymandering is when it
is purely racial (Gomillion v. Lightfoot… violation
of 15th Amendment).
• But, minority-majority districts were still drawn
after the 1990 and 2000 censuses. The Supreme
Court struck down race-based districts in many
cases including Bush v. Vera.
• Yet, the Court recently held that race can be part
of the process in drawing district lines (Hunt v
Cromartie, 2001)
Other Privileges:
• Also afforded ability to avoid arrest
during sessions of Congress (unless they
committed treason, a felony or “a breach
of the peace”).
• This dates back to when Kings harassed
members of parliament who would not fall
in line.
• They also may not be “questioned in any
other place” other than their chamber of
26 Congress. They can not be sued for “libel
or slander” in their capacity as members of
Congress (legislative immunity).
• This protects legislative debate.. But it
does not give members of Congress
unbridled freedom to attack others
verbally or in print.
Terms of Congress:
• Terms in the Congress (House of Representatives)
lasts for 2 years.
• Originally (1st Congress) March 4, 1789- March 4
1791.
• 20th Amendment (1933) changes this to “noon of the
3rd day of January” of every odd numbered year.
• So… the 108th Congress’ term began on January 3,
2005 and ended at noon on January 3, 2007.
Sessions:
• Period of time during which , each year, the
Congress assembles and conducts business. There
is one session per year (2 total).
• According to 20th Amendment, Congress should
begin term on January 3, but gives them the ability to
choose another day (happens often).
• They adjourn (suspend session) as it sees fit.
• Prior to WWII, sessions usually lasted 4-5 months…
since then they often go year round with short
“recesses”.
• Neither house of Congress may adjourn “Sine die”
(without approval from other house).
• In the case that the 2 houses can’t agree on a date,
the President is given the power to prorogue (adjourn)
as session (has never happened).
Shirley Chisholm, the first black
woman elected to Congress , 1968
The US made a bicameral legislature for
historical, practical, and theoretical reasons.
Historical: The British Parliament was (is)
bicameral and the system was well know, as
were all of the colonial as were all the state
legislatures (minus GA & PA).
Practical: Bicameral Congress, dividing into
a Senate with equal representation and a
House of Representatives which based
membership on state population, was a way
to resolve differences between large and
small states.
Theoretical: Framers wanted to ensure that
each chamber could “check” the other. The
Framers knew the Congress had the potential
to be the “overwhelming” force in
government… so dividing it would prevent
this by making each chamber competitors for
power.
Senate: Protect elite interests, ratify treaties, confirm presidential nominations,
try impeached officials
House: (closest to masses) initiate revenue bills, impeach officials
House of Representatives Agenda:
• House is bigger and more institutionalized than
Senate.
• Party loyalty/voting are more common.
• Debate can be ended with simple majority vote
• Has the unique House Rules Committee:
• Bill coming from House committees are
reviewed before they go to floor.
• Bill is given a “rule” (scheduled bill, allots
time for debate, sometimes specifies what
amendments can be made.
• All members are appointed by the Speaker.
The Senate:
• They are less disciplined and less
centralized than House.
• Party leaders do what the Rules
Committee does in the House.
27• A quorum is a minimum number of members
who must be present to permit a legislative
body to carry out its business. This consists
of 218 in the House and 51 in the Senate.
• Members in the Senate may use a
28 filibuster to kill a bill or “talk it to death”.
• This can ONLY be done in the Senate
(because the House has a rules committee
that sets time limits for debate).
• It can only happen when cloture is not
invoked.
30• Cloture means that 60 Senators or more
have agreed to limit debate prior to a bill
Senator Strom Thurmond (D-SC--he
later became a Republican) holds the
coming to the floor.
record for the longest individual
29 filibuster, talking for 24 hours and 18 •A meeting of the majority party in the
minutes against civil rights legislation House is a caucus. 31
in 1957.
• Congressional leadership is party leadership!
• Power is dispersed widely requiring an appeal by leaders for broad support.
House Leadership:
• Speaker of the House: second in line for presidency (after VP)
• Once had autocratic powers… but most were removed in 1910 and given
to committees (some later restored).
• Formal Powers:
• presides over House when in session; major role in committee assignments;
• plays big role in appointing party’s legislative leaders and party leadership
• has great control over which bills get assigned to which committees
• has informal power inside and outside Congress
32
• Majority Leader: (Speakers principle partisan ally) Rounds up votes for party legislation
and for scheduling bills.
• Minority Leader: same as majority leader but for minority party (not a Speaker ally).
33
• Majority Whip: rounds up votes and reports views and complaints to party rank-and-file.
• Minority Whip: same as majority whip but for minority party.
Nancy Pelosi
Speaker of the House
Steny Hoyer
Maj. Leader
John Boehner
Min. Leader
Senate Leadership:
• President of the Senate: the Vice President is given this role by the
34
Constitution… little to no influence in the Senate but can break a tie.
35
• President pro tempore: highest-ranking senator and 3rd in line for presidency
after the Speaker of the House. During the VP’s absence, the President pro
tempore is the highest-ranking official in the Senate and may preside, but usually
delegates the authority… position usually given to the most senior senator in
majority party.
• Minority Leader: real source of power in the Senate; rounds up votes, influences
committee assignments.
• Majority Whip: rounds up votes and reports views and complaints to party rankand-file.
• Minority Whip: same as majority whip but for minority party.
36
• Seniority is the length of time a member has served in Congress.
Robert Byrd
President pro tempore
Harry Reid
Maj. Leader
Mitch McConnell
Min. Leader
• Many scholars are amazed that
anything gets done in Congress due
to its complexity.
• Bicameral division mean bills have
to get through two separate
committees.
• Recent reforms have decentralized
power and the job of leading
congress is more difficult.
• Congressional leaders are less
powerful today and have to respond
to their party members.
• After the 1994 Republican
Revolution, Newt Gingrich
centralized power and exercised
strong leadership… he was
extraordinarily powerful.
• Nancy Pelosi seems to be
following the same path…
Speaker of the House
Newt Gingrich
from 1995 to 1999
• Most of the real work in
congress happened in
committees which dominate.
congressional policy making.
• They regularly hold meetings
to investigate problems and
wrongdoing in all parts and
branches of the government.
• They control the agenda &
guide legislation from its
introduction to its sendoff.
• There are four types:
standing committees, joint
committees, conference
committees, and select
committees.
Meeting of the Senate Appropriations Committee.
So that Congress can make
decisions about bills relating to a
variety of issues, the Congress is
split into different committees.
Each congressman is assigned to
a standing (permanent)
Committee which studies special
issues
The Committees include:
Agriculture, Appropriations Armed
Services, Budget, Education and the
Workforce, Energy and Commerce,
Financial Services, Government
Reform, House Administration,
International Relations, Judiciary,
Resources, Rules, Science, Small
Business, Standards of Official
Conduct, Transportation and
Infrastructure, Veterans Affairs,
Ways & Means
Central hearing room of the Hart Senate Building.
When standing committees need
to study specific issues, they
often create subcommittees.
For example, the Armed Services
Committee needed to decide
which bases to close, so they
created the Subcommittee on
Military Installations and
Facilities
The Judiciary Committee has had
to deal with issues relating to
immigration so they created the
Subcommittee on Immigration
and Claims
Committee on
Transportation
and Infrastructure
Subcommittee
on Aviation
Subcommittee on
Highways and Transit
Subcommittee
on Railroads
Congress often creates joint
committees made up of
members of the House of
Representatives and Senate
that study a few policy areas
Source: US House of Representatives
Conference Committees are a
form of joint committee. They
are formed to compromise
and resolve differences
between the House and
Senate versions of a bill.
Other joint committees
presently in existence are the
Joint Economic Committee,
Joint Committee on Printing,
Joint Committee on Taxation
37
38
39
40
A proposed law is called a bill.
A schedule that lists the order in which bills are to be
considered by the House is a calendar.
Most bills that are introduced do not become law.
Amazingly, less than 10% of the bills that make it out of
committee successfully become laws… there are about
5,500 introduced each year.
As the framers intended, law making is a difficult task.
• Every bill submitted to a
committee is typically goes to a
subcommittee which can hold
hearings on it.
• Bills that make it out of committee
are “marked up” (revised or
rewritten) and then submitted to the
House and Senate for consideration.
• “Floor managers” of the bill help
party leaders secure votes for it, &
also serve as “cue-givers” to whom
other members turn to for advice.
• When the two chambers pass
different versions of the same bill,
some members of the committee
will be appointed to a conference
committee.
Congress also has other roles…
Legislative oversight: (watchdog role)
Monitors the bureaucracy and
administration of policy (a check over
the executive branch).
1. Oversight is generally done through
hearings… monitors how bill are
implemented and pressures executive
agencies to comply with their wishes.
2. Oversight can catch national attention
such Watergate, Iran-Contra, and the
Monica Lewinsky scandal.
3. Congress keeps tabs on routine
activities through its committee staff
members who have specialized
expertise in the fields and agencies
that Congress oversees (they have
formal and informal contacts within
bureaucracy).
• After the election, members will write their leadership and indicate their
preference for committee appointments.
• Hope to achieve 3 goals: reelection, influence in Congress, and make
policy in areas they care about.
• Committees include members from both parties… the majority will have the
majority of seats and the chairmanship.
Committee Chairs are most important influencers of committee agenda… also
play dominant role in scheduling, hiring staff, appointing subcommittees, and
managing bills before they are brought before the full house.
• Through the 1970’s, there
was a seniority system in place… but a revolt of younger members changed
that both parties permit
members to vote for
committee chairs.
• Seniority is still the general
rule for selection, but there
Chairs of House Committees
have been exceptions.
• These reforms have reduced
the clout of the chairs.
• The advent of caucuses [meeting of the
majority party] in Congress has made the
representation of interests in Congress a
more direct process.
• There are a series of caucuses in Congress
based on race, region, ideology, and
economics.
Examples:
• Blue Dog Coalition
• Congressional Black Caucus
• Congressional Caucus for Women's Issues
• Congressional Hispanic Caucus
• Congressional Horse Caucus
• Congressional Internet Caucus
• Congressional Second Amendment Caucus
• Congressional Victim's Rights Caucus
• Congressional Western Caucus
• Flat Tax Caucus
• U.S.-Mongolia Friendship Caucus
• Victory in Iraq Caucus
•… and LOTS more
•
The average representative has 17 assistants;
41 the average senator has 44.
•
There are about 11,500 individuals serve on the
personal staffs of members of Congress.
•
1/3 to 1/2 work at local offices to stay close to
constituents and pass on their concerns to
Washington.
•
The committees of the House and Senate
employee another 2,500 staffers… generally, they
organize hearings, do research, , draft committee
reports, write legislation, and keep tabs on the
executive branch.
Three Important Staff Agencies:
1. Congressional Research Service (CRS):
administered by the Library of Congress; employs
750 researchers with developed expertise.
2. General Accounting Office (GAO): reviews
activities of the executive branch to see if it is
following the law by investigating how effectively
and efficiently the policy has been implemented.
3. Congressional Budget Office (CBO): analyzes the
president’s budget and makes economic
projections about the economy, cost of policies,
and effects of taxing and spending alternatives.
• A bill is a proposed law (5,500/ year,
11,000 per 2 year House term), drafted
in precise legal language
• Anyone can draft a bill, but only
members of House or Senate may
introduce (The White House and interest
groups are keys sources of bills)
• Most bill are killed early in he process,
so many will attach bills as riders
42• Riders are an “add-on” to a bill already
under the consideration of the Congress,
having little connection with the subject
matter of the bill.
• They are usually created as a tactic to
pass a controversial provision which
would not pass as its own bill.
• Another tactic is omnibus legislations:
an omnibus bill is a single document
that is accepted in a single vote by a
legislature but contains amendments to
a number of other laws or even many
entirely new laws… usually full of pork!
10,238
Bills introduced
Reported by committee
Passed one chamber
667 Passed both chamber
660
Public Law
• Presidents have their own legislative
agenda based on party platform and
electoral coalition… the president is
often called “chief legislator” and his job
is to convince Congress this his agenda
and Congresses’ should be the same.
• The President may try to influence
members directly, but usually leaves it to
the White House liaison office that will
meet with party leaders in the House and
Senate regularly.
• The presidents job, therefore is to
create a favorable configuration of
political forces.
• Presidents are most successful during
the early part of their presidency when
their party often control one hous of
congress or the other.
• Of course, presidents regularly lose on
many issues.
Party Influence:
• Party’s are most cohesive when Congress
is electing official leaders – usually a vote
for Speaker is a straight party-line vote.
• On issues like civil rights, there may be
division.
• Differences between the Republican and
Democratic party usually about social
welfare and economic policy.
• In Great Britain (and other parliamentary
governments) party-line votes are the norm
on most all matters.
• Parties in the U.S. are weaker, but party
affiliation can influence votes… but typically,
Democrats and Republicans oppose each
other less than half the time.
• Party leaders are never guaranteed support
from renegade members of their party and
can little to control dissent (minus committee
appointment threats).
• Money has also become a bigger factor in
43
Congressional campaigns.
REGULAR PARTY RENEGADES
Much of a congressman’s job revolves around
unimportant and routine duties (i.e. Voting on
National Wildflower Week, etc).
But when
issues are important and matter to
constituents, they have to decide on what
basis to cast votes.
They have four choices:
1. Trustees: use their “best judgment”; questions
decided on merits; conscience guides them;
nothing but their own values guide their votes in
Congress.
2. Instructed Delegates: agents of their constituents;
vote the way the “folks back home” want them to…
they are mirrors to constituent desires.
3. Partisans: Loyal to political party; always vote
“the party line” based on party platform and
desires of party leaders. This is the leading factor
on influencing votes in Congress.
4. Politicos: combine elements of the trustee,
delegate, and partisan. Try to balance conflicting
factors: own views, what’s best for
constituents/nation, political realities, and
pressures of the moment.
True “trustee”
Ron Paul
True “partisan”
John Kerry
True “politico”
Arlen Specter
44 Lobbyists: many are former members of
Congress who have greater access to their
old colleagues.
•
14,000 individuals represent 12,000
organizations… the bigger the issue, the
more lobbyists.
•
Lobbyists are regulated by the Federal
Regulation of Lobbying Act (1946) and
Former high-ranking
1995… Lobbyists who seek to influence
Republican
or defeat legislation must register and file Congressman Bob
reports with the Secretary of the Senate Livingston, now owns
a DC lobbying firm
and clerk of the House.
•
In fact, ANYONE hired to lobby
members of Congress, congressional
staff members, White House officials,
and other federal agencies must
report:
1. issues they seek to influence
2. how much they spend on the
Former Democratic
effort
Congressman Jim
3. identities of their clients
Slattery, now a
• This is intended to prevent shady deals partner in a DC
lobbying firm
and the influence of special interest.
Lobbyist and businessman
who pled guilty in 2006, to
3 criminal felony counts
defrauding of Indian tribes
and corruption of public
officials. He was
sentenced to 5 years and
10 months in prison and
ordered to pay restitution
of more than $21 million
(and that was a plea
bargain).
• The quality of democratic government depends
on the quality of representation.
• Congress is definitely undemocratic and
unrepresentative in some ways.
• They are part of American elite.
• Leadership is chosen by own members.
• Voters have little influence over who the
people who chair key committees or lead
congressional parties
• But… they are also representative
• They try to listen to American people and
react when people want something different.
• Elections do make a difference in votes
and policy.
• Linkage institutions do link voters to policy
makers.
Johnson gives "The Treatment" to
90-year-old Rhode Island Senator
Theodore F. Green in 1957
Reforming Congress:
• Reformers have tried to promote a more open
and democratic Congress… and have succeeded
to a large degree.
• In the late 1950’s, real power was a the top.
• Committee chairs were automatically selected
by seniority and their power was unquestioned.
• Senate Majority Leader Lyndon Johnson started
the reform process when he implemented the
“Johnson Rule” which gave each senator a seat
on at least one key committee.
• By the 1970’s the reform movement tried to
create more democracy by spreading power
around.
• Chairs were elected by majority party
(some replaced).
• Power of chairs was reduced.
• Subcommittees became center of power.
Representation vs. Effectiveness:
• The big legislative dilemma for Congress is
combining faithful representation of constituents
with making of effective public policy.
• Supporters (like the Framers) believe Congress
is a place where interests compete for a spot on
the policy agenda and over the form of a policy.
• Critics think Congress is too responsive to so
many interests that policy is uncoordinated,
fragmented, an decentralized… and possibly
incapable of decisive taking action to deal with
difficult problems.
• Americans are often contradictory in
their preference regarding public policy.
• They want to balance the budget and
want to pay less taxes… but the also
want government services.
• Many believe this likely explains the
American trend toward ticket splitting
and divided government on a national
level.
• Big government seems to help
members of Congress get reelected…
and this is why they support making it
bigger.
• BUT… Congress generally only
supports programs that the publics
demands.
• Regularly, the public decries bigger
government… but they demand those
services that benefit them personally
(self-interest).
•
Sometimes passion over debate becomes physical. In the 19th century, dueling
was a widespread solution for personal disputes, as were fists, knives, canes,
and fire tongs. Leading citizens carried loaded pistols, and that included
members of congress. In our time, shoving and tie-pulling matches have
replaced lethal weapons.
•
•
•
•
•
In April, 1997, a dispute between Rep. David Obey [D-WI] and
Rep Tom Delay [R-TX] over references to a newspaper article
critical of Delay. This led to some name-calling and shoving
between them in the main aisle of the House floor. A staff
member intervened quickly to separate the two.
•
•
•
•
•
In September, 1995, there was a hallway dispute which was a
continuation of an argument begun in the committee meeting.
The incident came to be known as “the brawl in the hall,” and
involved mostly name-calling by raised voices. Rep. Sam
Gibbon [D-FL] yanked the necktie of Rep. Bill Thomas [R-CA].
•
•
•
•
•
Also in 1995, during the debate over sending U.S. troops
to Bosnia, two former boxers, Rep. Randy Cunningham
[R-CA] and Rep. Jim Moran [D-VA] got into a shoving
match at the rear of the House chamber which spilled
into the hall.
•
In 1985, a physical altercation between former Rep. Tom
Downey [D-NY] and former Rep. Bob Dornan [R-CA] erupted
during a debate on defense issues. At the rear of the
chamber, after some name calling, Downey shoved Dornan,
who responded by yanking the necktie of Downey.
•
In June of 1985, Majority Leader Jim Wright [D-TX] was
presiding over the House. Wright left the rostrum, grabbed
former Rep. Bob Walker [R-PA] by the arm and threatened to
punch him in the mouth; this led to an extended and heated
debate that evening during the special order speech period.
•
In 1789, two members brawled on the House floor using a cane
and fire tong. In 1793, a House Member responded to a
lingering dispute with a former Member by challenging him to
a duel outside of the Capitol and killing him. In 1832, Rep. Sam
Houston was formally reprimanded by the House for attacking
Rep. William Stanbery with his cane. Stanbery’s response was
to shoot at Houston, but his pistol misfired. A duel between
two freshmen Congressmen in 1838 ended in the death of one.
•
In 1838, Rep. Abram Maury and Rep. William Campbell came to
blows behind the Speaker’s chair.
Campbell beat Maury
bloody. In 1840 Rep. Jesse Bynum attacked Rep. Rice Garland
with a cane, while Rep. Ken Rayner and William Montgomery
broke canes over each other’s heads.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
In 1856, Sen. Charles Sumner [MA] took to the Senate floor
to deliver a much-anticipated address entitled “The Crime
Against Kansas.” At issue was the 1854 Kansas-Nebraska
Act. Sumner once said “Nothing against slavery can be
unconstitutional.” Preston Brooks of SC, was known for his
“obliging disposition and his conciliatory temper.” A friend gave
him a gutta-percha walking stick as a gift. This would become a weapon.
Sumner took the floor and was giving a memorable speech on abolition.
Sumner said that Andrew Butler of SC [Brooks’ uncle who was away from the
floor] had chosen “the harlot, Slavery” for his mistress and also made fun of
Butler’s speech impediment. Stephen Douglas, pacing the floor in the rear
of the Senate chamber, shook his head at Summer’s words and muttered,
“That damn fool will get himself killed by some other damn fool.”
Sumner took his seat at the conclusion of his address. Lewis Cass called the
speech “the most un-American and unpatriotic that ever grated on the ears.”
Preston Brooks felt that Sumner had dishonored several members and decided
that a proper response was in order. A good thrashing with a cane was the only
fitting penalty. He headed toward Sumner with his solid, gold-headed guttapurcha walking stick. “Mr. Sumner, you have libeled my state, and slandered
my relation, who is absent, and I feel it to be my duty to punish you for it.” As
he finished his introduction, Brooks brought his cane down upon Sumner’s
head. The light chastisement he had intended to administer quickly turned into
a severe beating.
•
Sumner attempted to stand, but his legs were trapped under the desk, which
was bolted to the floor. Reeling under the blows with his arms extended in
weak defense, he finally wrenched the desk from the floor with his thighs. He
staggered down the aisle as Brooks snapped his cane in two over the
senator’s head. Brooks continued the attack with the shattered remnant of his
cane. By this time Sumner was insensible, and witnesses rushed to the scene
to restrain Brooks and assist Sumner. “I did not wish to hurt him much, but
only whip him.”
• Dazed and covered with blood, Sumner, bleeding badly, was moved from the
Senate floor to a small room where he was treated. Admirers sent Brooks a
number of ceremonial canes as gifts, including one inscribed, “Hit him again.”
• Daniel Webster’s son noted that the senator should have taken “the precaution
of wearing an iron pot on his head” before making such insulting remarks.
Afterwards Sumner was blinded by his
own blood, and he staggered up the aisle
and collapsed, lapsing into
unconsciousness. He did not attend the
Senate for the next 3 years while
he recovered from the attack.
Preston Brooks
“Gutta-purcha” walking stick
1. The (Supreme Court/Presidency/Congress) is the legislative [law-making] branch.
2. The major function of Congress is to
(interpret the law/carry out the law/make the law).
3. The word for two houses is (filibuster/quorum/bicameral).
4. The largest State in population is (California/Texas/New York). The smallest is
(Arkansas/Alaska/New Mexico).
5. A term of Congress is for (two/four/six) years. The date for the start of each term
is the 3rd day of (January/March/November) of every odd-numbered year.
6. Sessions of Congress last for (one/two/four/six) year(s).
There are (one/two/four/six) sessions each term of Congress.
7. Only the (President/Supreme Court Chief Justice) can call a special session of
Congress.
8. The 435 members of the House (is/is not) fixed by the House.
9. Each State is guaranteed at least (one/two/four) seat(s) in the House.
10. Representatives are elected to (two/four/six/eight) year terms.
11. Congress reapportions after each (five/ten/twenty) year census.
12. Each seat in the House represents about (350,000/650,000/950,000) persons.
13. Congressional elections are held on the Tuesday following the first Monday in
(July/November/January) of each even-numbered year.
14. (Censure/Expulsion/Gerrymandering) is when districts have been drawn to the
advantage of the dominant party in power in the legislature.
15. A (censure/expulsion/gerrymander) is a formal reprimand of a congressman for
such misdeeds as misuse of public funds or abuse of privileges.
16. (Censure/Expulsion/Gerrymandering) is removal from the House or Senate and
requires two/thirds concurrence of the membership of both chambers.
17. There are (435/100/200) senators representing all 50 States.
18. Senators (are/are not) elected from the State at-large.
19. Senators are chosen for (two/four/six/eight) year terms.
20. Only a third of the senators [33 or 34] expire every (two/four/six) years.
21. A senator must be at least (25/30/35) years old.
22. The (House/Senate) is the more elite group.
23. Yearly pay for congressman is roughly $____________.
168,500
24. A (quorum/filibuster/junket) is a trip abroad paid for the government.
25. Congressmen (are/are not) free from arrest in all cases except treason, felony,
and breach of the peace.
26. A congressman (can/can not) be sued for libel or slander arising out of official
conduct.
27. A (quorum/filibuster/junket) is a minimum number of members who must be
present to permit a legislative body to carry out its business.
28. A (quorum/filibuster/junket) is an attempt to “talk a bill to death.”
29. Strom Thurman of South Carolina set the record when he spoke against the
Civil Rights Act of 1957 for more than (12/24/36) hours.
30. A filibuster may be stopped when 3/5 of the entire Senate [60 members] vote for
(caucus/cloture/quorum).
31. A meeting of the majority party in the House is a (caucus/cloture/quorum).
32. The person in Congress who is the leader of the party that controls congress is
the (Majority Leader/Minority Leader/Vice-President).
33. The person in Congress who is the leader of the smaller party in Congress is the
(Majority Leader/Minority Leader/Vice-President).
34. The President of the Senate is the (Majority Leader/Minority leader/Vice-President).
35. The (Majority Leader/President Pro Tempore) presides over the Senate in the
absence of the Vice-President.
36. (Seniority/Quorum/Junket/Filibuster) is the length of time a member has served
in Congress.
37. A proposed law is called a (calendar/quorum/caucus/bill).
38. A schedule that lists the order in which bills are to be considered by the House
is a (quorum/calendar/caucus).
39. Most bills that are introduced (do/do not) become law.
40. Although thousands of bills may be introduced in each 2-year term, just under
(2%/10%/50%) become law.
41. The average senator has (very few/many) assistants.
42. A (horseback/bareback/rider) is an “add-on” to a bill.
43. Money (is/is no longer) a factor in Congressional campaigns.
44. _______________
are hired by interest groups to influence congressmen.
Lobbyists