articulation
a specific, gradually developing motor skill
that involves mainly peripheral motor processes
involved in the planning and execution
of sequences of overlapping gestures
that result in speech
phoneme
the smallest unit within a language that is able,
when combined with other units,
to establish word meanings and distinguish among
them.
phonology
the study of the meaningful units of
sound within a language;
the description of the systems and
patterns of phonemes that occur in a
language.
Articulation disorder
Phonological disorder
phonetic errors
phonemic errors
problems in speech sound production
problems in the language-specific function
of phonemes
difficulties with speech sound forms
difficulties with phoneme function
disturbances in relatively peripheral
motor processes that result in speech
disturbances are more central in nature,
concerning the phonological level of the
organization of the language system
speech sound production difficulties
do not typically impact other areas
of language development such as
morphology, syntax or semantics
phoneme difficulties may impact other
language areas such as morphology, syntax
or semantics
Articulatory phonetics:
basic terms
• vowels:
– tense = /I, e, 3, u, o,
O/
– rounded = /u, U, o, O,
3/
• consonants:
– sonorants (semivowels=nasals, liquids, glides)
– obstruents (stops, fricatives, affricates)
– organ, place, manner, voicing
• monophthong,diphthong (onglide,offglide)
Place-manner-voice
• Voiced
[b,d,g,v,D, z,
Z, dZ, m, n, N,
l, r, w, j]
• Voiceless
[p, t, k, f, T,
s, S, tS, h]
Place-manner-voice categories:
• Place
labial [p,b,f,v,m,w]
dental [T,D]
alveolar
[t,d,s,z,n,l]
postalveolar
[S,Z,tS,dZ]
palatal [j,r]
velar [k,g,N]
glottal [h]
Place-manner-voice
• Manner
stop-plosives:
[p,b,t,d,k,g]
fricatives:
[f,v,T,D,s,z,S,Z,h
]
affricates: [tS, dZ]
nasals: [m,n,N]
liquids: [l, r
]
glides: [w,
j]
Coarticulation:
Assimilation/harmony processes
•
•
•
•
•
•
Contact assimilation
remote assimilations
progressive assimilations
regressive assimilations
total assimilations
partial assimilations
Syllable structure:
• peak = most prominent, acoustically intense
• onset = syllable release
• coda = syllable arrest
Assessing medial position
Goldman Fristoe-2 Test of Articulation:
[d] in “window” = onset of unstressed, open
syllable, preceded by consonant made in
same place of articulation (CVCCV)
[T] in “bathtub” = coda of stressed syllable,
followed by onset of closed syllable (CVCCVC)
[n] in “banana” = onset of stressed, open syllable in a
trisyllabic word;reduplicated syllables (CVCVCV)
[l] in “balloons = onset of stressed, closed syllable
with bilabial [b] and rounded [u] (CVCVCC)
Diacritics
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
dentalization
palatalization
velarization
lateralization
partial devoicing
partial voicing
aspiration
Diacritics (continued)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
unaspiration
unreleased
syllabic consonant
labialization
nonlabialization
derhotacization
rounding/unrounding
Diacritics (continued)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
raised
lowered
advanced
retracted
nasalized
glottal stop
flap
Distinctive features
“The distinctive features of an individual
phoneme would be those aspects of the process
of articulation and their acoustic consequences
that serve to contrast one phoneme from
another.”
Distinctive features of phonemes
• Major Class features (sonorant, consonantal, vocalic)
• Cavity features (coronal, anterior, distributed, nasal,
lateral, high, low, back, round)
• Manner features (continuant, delayed release, tense)
• Source features (heightened subglottal pressure, voicing,
stridency)
• Prosodic features
Chomsky & Halle’s Distinctive Features
1. vocalic/nonvocalic
2. consonantal/nonconsonantal
3. coronal/noncoronal
4. anterior/nonanterior
5. high/nonhigh
6. back/nonback
7. low/nonlow
8. nasal/nonnasal
9. round/nonround
10. continuant/noncontinuant
11. tense/nontense
12. voice/nonvoice
13. strident/nonstrident
Distinctive features versus
organ, place, voice and manner
• [p] and [b]; voiceless
and voiced bilabial
stops
replace
• [t] and [d]; voiceless
and voiced coronal
alveolar stops
replace
• [f] and [v]; v.l.& v.
labiodental fricatives
• [s] and [z]; v.l. & v.
coronal alveolar apicoalveolar fricatives;
• [S],[Z];v.l.&v
. coronal prepalatal
fricatives.;
• [T][D];v.l.& v.
apico- dental
Distinctive feature versus
organ, place, voice, manner
• [p],[b] = (-)strident
(-)continuant
• [t],[d] = (-) strident
(-)continuant
(+) diffuse
• [f],[v] = (+)strident
(+)continuant
• [s],[z] = (+)strident
[S],[Z]=
(+)strident [s],[z] =
(+)continuant
[S],[Z]=
(+)continuant
[T],[D]=(+)cont
inuant [S],[Z]
=(-) diffuse
Distinctive feature systems focused
attention on the components of phonemes
rather than the production of phonemes.
Another important aspect of distinctive
features is naturalness versus markedness:
• natural = simple to produce, occuring often
e.g., [p]
• marked = dfficult to produce, occurring
less often, e.g., [tS]
Phonologically disordered children tend to
substitute more unmarked/natural classes for
marked/unnatural classes
• Voiceless obstruents for sonorants
• obstruents for sonorants
• stops for fricatives
• fricatives for affricates
• low front vowels for other sounds
• close-tense vowels for open-lax vowels
• anterior consonants for other consonants
• simple consonants for complex consonants
Generative phonology
Five features of phonemes:
• Major class features:
is it a consonant, vowel or inbetween?
• Cavity features:
where is it produced?
• Manner of articulation features:
how is it produced?
• Source features
what’s the energy source?
• Prosodic features
Phonological rules for pluralizing
• Add underlying representation /z/
e.g., [dOg] > [dOgz]
• maintain same voice as root word ending
e.g., [k{t]> [k{ts]
• if underlying representation and root word
ending are made in the same place of
articulation, add a schwa.
Notation for phonological rules:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
> becomes or “can be rewritten as”
/ “in the environment of”
— indicates location of changed segment
#—indicates the beginning of a word
—#indicates the end or final word position
V—V is intervocallic word position
Ø indicates the deletion of a segment
C indicates a consonant segment
CC(C) indicates two or three consonants
t/s or s>t;
d/z or z>d: in distinctive feature
“talk” =
+cons
+cons
+cor
+cor
+ant
>
+ant
+cons
-cons
+strid
-strid
(where #—and —#)
Natural phonology
Patterns of speech are governed
by an innate, universal set of
phonological processes.
“A phonological process
is a mental operation that applies in
speech to substitute for a class of
sounds or sound sequences presenting
a common difficulty to the speech
capacity of the individual.”
Stampe (1979)
• Phonological processes are innate and
universal;
• Phonological processes are easier for the
child to produce and are substituted for
sounds, sound classes, or sound sequences
when the child’s motor capacities do not yet
allow their norm realization;
• All children begin with innate speech
patterns but must progress to the language
specific system that characterizes their
native language.
• Phonological processes are used to
constantly revise existing differences
between the innate patterns and the adult
norm production;
• Children go through developmental steps
until the goal of adult phonology is reached;
• Disordered phonology is seen as an inability
to realize this “natural” process of goaloriented adaptive change.
Mechanisms for revisions,
as children work toward adult norms:
• Limitation
e.g., first stops for all fricatives and then
through limitation, stops for all sibilants
• Ordering
random substitutions become orderly
• Suppression
process(es) no longer used
Syllable Structure Processes
• Cluster reduction
• Reduplication
total or partial
• Weak syllable deletion
• Final consonant deletion
• Epenthesis
Substitution Processes
• Consonant cluster
substitution
• fronting
• labialization
• alveolarization
• stopping
• affrication
• deaffrication
• Denasalization
• gliding of
liquids/fricatives
• vowelization
• derhotacization
• voicing
• Devoicing
• Stridency deletion
Assimilation Processes
(Harmony)
•
•
•
•
Labial assimilation
Velar assimilation
Nasal assimilation
Liquid assimilation
Use of phonological processes by
phonologically impaired children
•
•
•
•
•
Persisting normal processes
chronological mismatch
systematic sound preferences
unusual or idiosyncratic processes
variable use of processes
Some segments (or groups of segments)
may have a controlling influence on
others; there may be a hierarchical
arrangement between segments and other
linguistic units.
Non-linear or multilinear phonologies are a
group of phonological theories that study the
interaction between various levels of
phonological and linguistic control
Principles of movement development
applied to oral mechanism
• Development is a continuous process.
• The sequence remains the same, although
the rate may vary.
• Movements develop from head to tail.
• Gross motor precedes fine motor control.
• Stability allows for advanced and accurate
mobility.
Principles of movement development
applied to oral mechanism (cont.)
• Movements develop from proximal to distal
• Movements develop from medial to lateral
• Abnormal structure leads to adjustment in
motor function
• Abnormal tone/movement in one part of the
body leads to adjustment in motor function
somewhere else.
Principles of movement development
applied to oral mechanism (cont.)
• Early learning is a sensorimotor experience
• Complex motor activities are monitored
through continuous sensory feedback.
• Rapid, precise sequential movements are
dependent upon the ability to perform
discrete movements.
• Movement patterns are based upon
economy of movement.
Prelinguistic stages
• Birth - two months: Reflexive/vegetative
(quasi-resonant nuclei)
• 2 - 4 mo: cooing and laughter
• 4 - 6 mo: vocal play
• 6 months: canonical babbling
reduplicated and nonreduplicated
• 10 months: jargon/variegated babbling
Predictive value of babbling:
• Less language growth is seen in children
with more vocoid babble compared to those
with more contoid babble;
• greater language growth is related to greater
babble complexity
• greater language growth is related to
increased diversity of concoid productions
• Vocables
• Phonetically consistent forms (PCFs)
• Proto-words
• Quasi-words
THE FIRST WORD
an entity of relatively stable phonetic form that is
produced consistently by the child in a particular
context and is recognizably related to the adultlike
word form of a particular language.
Acquisition of vowel sounds
• first 50 word stage:
[a, i, u]
• preschool stage
reached by age 2: [a, i ,u, o,
V, @]
reached by age 3: [
E, O ]
reached by
age 4: [ I, e, {, U]
• consensus is that vowels are in by 3-4 years
Developmental sequence of vowels
• Group 1: early developing vowels are
[i A
u o V]
• Group 2: intermediate vowels are
[{ U O @]
• Group 3: later developing vowels are
[e E I @` 3`]
Acquisition of consonants during
the first 50 word stage:
Best guess:
[ b, m, p, t, d,
k, g, S, n, w, h
]
significant
individual
variability
Potentially intrusive variables:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Isolated words or connected speech
length of words
stress patterns
word familiarity
number of words tested for each position
effects of sounds in words - harmony
conditions of data collection
Summary of Vihman & Greenlee (1987)
Subjects were ten three-year olds:
• Stops and fricatives > [T] by all
subjects
• >50% substituted [r] and [l] and used palatal
fronting ( [S>s] )
• 2/10 demonstrated their own particular style of
phonological acquisition
• 73% judged as unintelligible, with range of 5480%
• the more complex the syntax, the worse the
articulation
4
5
pl, bl, kl, gl
pr, br, tr, dr, kr
tw, kw
sm, sn, sp, st, sk
gr, fl, fr, str
6
skw
mp, mpt, mps, Nk
lp, lt, rm, rt, rk
pt, ks,
ft
lb, lf
rd, rf, rn
lk
rb, rg, rT,
rdZ,rst
rtS,
nt,
nd, nT
7
spl, spr, skr
sk, st, kst
sl, sw
lT, lz
Sr, Tr
dZd
Processes disappearing by age 3:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Weak syllable deletion
Final consonant deletion
Doubling (repetition of a word, [gogo]
Reduplication
Diminutization (use of diminutives)
Velar fronting
Consonant assimilation
Prevocalic voicing
Processes persisting after age 3:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Cluster reduction
Epenthesis
Gliding
Vocalization, e.g., [pipo] for “people”
Stopping
Depalatalization
Final devoicing
Haelsig and Madison (1986)
50 three, four and five year olds
• 3-3 ½ used Cluster Reduction, Weak Syllable Deletion,
Glottal Replacement, Labial Assimilation, Gliding Liquids
• 4 ½ -5 used: Weak Syllable Deletion, Cluster Reduction
• Rarely used by any age: Velar Assimilation, PreVocalic
Voicing, Gliding of Fricatives, Affrication, Denasalization
• Greatest reduction in processes occurred between 3 and 4
• Deletion of final consonants, stopping, fronting and gliding
of liquids reduced by 50% between 3 and 4.
Phonological processes with vowels:
•
•
•
•
•
Vowel backing and vowel fronting
centralization and decentralization
vowel raising and vowel lowering
diphthongization and monophthongization
vowel harmony:
complete harmony
tenseness harmony
height vowel harmony
Correlational factors describing learning
to read and learning to speak:
• Poor readers have difficulty analyzing words into
syllables and sounds
• poor readers have poor memories of
phonologically coded material
• poor readers have difficulty in repetition tasks
• children with speech/language problems have
poor phonological awareness and, if older than
5.6, reading.
Assessment = appraisal + diagnosis
• Case history
• Parent interview
• School/medical records
• Evaluation by the clinician
Articulation tests to be presented
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Templin-Darley Test of Articulation
Photo Articulation Test
Fisher-Logemann Test of Articulation
Goldman-Fristoe 2
Arizona Test of Articulatory Proficiency
Contextual Test of Articulation
McDonald Deep Test of Articulation
Phonological tests to be presented
• Kahn-Lewis Phonological Analysis 2
• Phonological Process Analysis
• Hodson Assessment of Phonological
Patterns- 3
• Bankson-Bernthal Test of Phonology
• Clinical Assessment of Articulation and
Phonology
Contextual Test of Articulation
Aase, et al., 2000
• not an initial test procedure
• /s/, /l/, /k/, /r/, /3`/, 15 twoconsonant clusters
• /s/ and /l/ tested 36 times each;
• /k/ tested 39 times;
• /3`/ tested 9 times
• /sm, sn, sl, st, sk, sp, pl, bl, kl, kr, tr, dr, br,
mp, nt/
Index of severity for children with emerging
language skills
• Number of different
consonants in 10 minute
sample:
• 18-24 months:
norm = 14
small express. vocab = 6
• 24-36 months:
norm = 18
small express.vocab = 10
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Syllable structure level
use 20-50 vocalizations
level one (p.150)
level two
level three
norm at 24 mo = 2.2
small express.vocab = 1.7
Int. Prod.
Int. prod. Int. prod. Int. prod. Int. prod.
house h
2
h
au
au
stove st
d
ou ou
v
finger f
n
b
g
I
2
jump dZ
V
mp
d
mp
church tS
3
tS
t
s
2
I
@`
N
@
V
3`
2
Hallmarks of phonetic disorders:
• Preservation of phonemic contrasts
even subtle contrasts may signal
phonetic (not phonemic) difficulties
• Peripheral, motor-based problems
look for consistent pattern or
explanations of inconsistencies
lack of cognitive/linguistic problems
lack of perceptually based problems
Variables contributing to severity ratings:
Connolly (1986)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Loss of phonemic contrasts
loss of contrasts in specific contexts
# of meaning contrasts lost
difference between target and realization
consistency of target-realization relationship
frequency of abnormality
listener familiarity with client’s speech
communicative context
Determining intelligibility (Shipley, 1992)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
The number of sound errors
the type of sound errors
inconsistency of errors
vowel errors
rate of speech
atypical prosody
length and linguistic complexity of words used
insufficient vocal intensity
dysfluencies
Determining intelligibility (continued)
•
•
•
•
•
•
Lack of gestures or paralinguistic cues
the testing environment
the client’s anxiety
the client’s lack of familiarity with stimulus materials
the client’s level of fatigue
the clinician’s ability to understand “less intelligible
speech
• the clinician’s familiarity with the client and the context
Considerations before starting...
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
sounds that are functional for the child;
sounds that are stimulable;
sounds that occur in key words/contexts;
sounds that are more visible;
sounds that occur more frequently;
sounds that affect intelligibility the most;
sounds least affected by physical deviations;
…more considerations...
•
•
•
•
sounds inconsistently mispronounced;
sounds that are acquired earlier;
sounds that are part of child’s inventory;
sounds that may generalize to others (see
next slide);
• exemplars that are part of a rule pattern,
e.g., P-V-M, Distinctive features,
Phonoloigcal processes
Edwards (1983)
Principles for selection of target sounds
•Choose target sounds that are in the child’s phonetic
repertoire
•Choose sounds for which the child is stimulable.
•Choose sounds that should improve intelligibility
•Choose frequently occurring sounds
•Choose sounds that are acquired early
•Choose high-value sounds
•Choose sounds that should be relatively easy to produce
Weiss, Gordon and Lillywhite (1987)
Select the error phoneme that:
•is the earliest to develop
•is the most stimulable
•is produced correctly in a key word
•occurs most frequently in speech
•is most consistent
•is visible
•has resulted in criticism
•the client most desires to correct
•is least likely to be affected by physical deviations
•is the same for a group of clients
Hegde and Davis (1995)
Guidelines for selection of potential target behaviors:
• select behaviors that will make an immediate and socially
significant difference (improves intelligibility the most);
• select the most useful behaviors that may be produced and
reinforced at home and in other natural settings (easily
understood and reinforced by family);
• select behaviors that help expand communicative skills;
practice words should be meaningful and appropriate.
4. select behaviors that are linguistically and culturally
appropriate for the individual client; practice words and
materials, suggested follow-up activities must be appropriate.
Predictions regarding generalization
(Elbert and Gierut, 1986)
• teaching one members of a cognate sounds pair
will result in the use of the other sound in the pair;
• teaching one allophone will result in the
production of other related allophones;
• teaching a distinctive feature in the context of one
sound will result in the use of that feature in other
untreated sounds;
• teaching sounds in final position of morphemes
will result in more accurate production of the
sounds in inflected intervocalic contexts;
Predictions (continued)
• teaching stops in word-final position will lead to
more accurate production in word-initial position;
• teaching fricatives in word-initial position will
result in more accurate production of fricatives in
word-final position;
• teaching fricatives will result in more accurate
production of stops;
• teaching voiced obstruents (stops, fricatives,
affricates) will result in accurate production of
voiceless obstruents;
more predictions about generalization
• teaching sounds that are stimulable results in more
accurate production than teaching sounds that are
not stimulable;
• sounds that are phonologically “known” will be
produced more accurately than sounds that are
phonologically “unknown;”
• teaching sounds of which a child has least
phonological knowledge will result in changes
across untreated aspects of the sound system.
Traditional Approach
Sensory-Perceptual (ear) Training:
identification, isolation, stimulation,
discrimination
Production Training – Sound Establishment
Production Training – Sound Stabilization
isolation, nonsense syllable, words, phrases,
sentences, conversation
Transfer and Carryover
Maintenance
Problems with individual sounds
When are “oro-motor” exercises
appropriate?
McDonald’s Sensori-Motor Approach
I. Heighten child’s responsiveness to the
patterns of auditory, proprioceptive and
tactile sensations associated with the
overlapping ballistic movements of
articulation
II. Reinforce the child’s correct articulation of
his error sound
III. Facilitate the correct articulation of the
error sound in systematically varied
phonetic contexts.
I. Heighten awareness….
a) auditory stimuli for imitation and
description
b) exercises for overlapping movements
c) ear training
d) simple to complex
e) listen, feel, hear
f) practice with bisyllables
g) practice with trisyllables
II.Reinforce correct articulation of error sound
• select a sound for reinforcement
• select a context in which error sound is
correctly articulated
slow motion speech, alter stress, etc.
• practice in short sentences
III. Facilitate correct articulation...
• change the vowel following it
• use other words ending in target + vowel; change the
vowel preceding target
• vary the stress
• practice in sentences
• if not continuant: slow motion speech/arrested production
• practice with varied stress
• VARY THE FACILITATING CONSONANT
SYSTEMATICALLY
Unique features of phonological therapy
• Works on groups or classes of sounds, not
one sound
• Aim is to establish phonological contrasts
which have been neutralized
• Works in a naturalistic context
Edwards (1983)
Principles for selection of target processes
• Choose processes that result in early success or that would be relatively
easy to remediate. For example, select processes that occur only in
certain phonetic environments; or processes that affect sounds that are
within the child’s phonetic inventory; or select processes that affect
sounds for which the child is stimulable.
• Choose processes that are crucial for the child, i.e., those that draw
considerable attention to the child’s speech (e.g., velarization,
lateralization, frication of stops, glottal replacement).
• Choose early processes or processes that affect early sounds (e.g.,
gliding of stops).
4. Choose processes that interact, i.e., involve more than one rule (e.g.,
stopping of fricatives in final word position, which impacts plurals,
possessives, 3rd person singular.)
Cycles Approach
(Hodson and Paden (1983,1991)
• designed for severely unintelligible children
• uses auditory, tectile, visual stimulation cues to
facilitate awareness of targets
• a cycle is “a period of time during which all
phonological patterns in need of remediation are
facilitated in succession…
• the time period required for the child to
successively focus for 2 to 6 hr on each of his or
her basic deficient patterns.”
Cycles approach (continued)
Selection of target patterns
• Administer APP-R or HAPP-3
• determine which phonological patterns are seen at
least 40% of the time
• determine which one is most stimulable, next most
stimulable, etc. This determines hierarchy of tx.
• Primary target patterns or phonemes:
early developing phonological patterns
posterior/anterior contrasts
/s/ clusters
liquids
Cycles continued
• Secondary target patterns
voicing contrasts
vowel contrasts
singleton stridents
consonant clusters
residual context-related processes (e.g., assimilation)
• Advanced targets
multisyllabic words
complex consonant sequences
• Inappropriate primary targets
voiced-final obstruents
weak-syllable deletion
final /N/
“th” phonemes
Cycles continued:
structure of remediation cycles
• Each phoneme exemplar within a target patterns should be
trained for approx 60 min per cycle before shifting to the
next phoneme in that pattern; one 60-min session or two 30
min session or three 20-min session.
• Stimulation should be provided for two or more target
phonemes within a pattern before changing to the next
target pattern = two hours
• only one phonological pattern should be targeted during
any one session
• a cycle is complete when all targets have been taught
• a second cycle is initiated
• 3-6 cycles (30-40 hrs), 40-60 min per week, usually
required for a child to become intelligible
Cycles continued:
Instructional sequence for remediation sessions
1. Review previous session: previous week’s production
practice word cards are reviewed
2. Auditory bombardment: slight amplification, two minutes;
child only listens to 12 words, perhaps twice
3. Target word cards: child draws, colors or pastes pictures of
3-5 target words on large index cards,with printed word.
4. Production practice: game based repetition; practice
includes auditory, tactile, visual stimulation at word level;
5. Stimulability probing: next session’s potential targets are
probed.
6. Auditory bombardment - same as #2
7. Home program- read words to child;child imitates; 1/day.
Use of Minimal Pairs
•
•
•
•
•
Highlights child’s error and correct production.
Target selection is crucial
Train perceptual discrimination
Train productive discrimination
Child takes on role of ‘teacher’ and must signal
knowledge of difference between pairs.
Distinctive feature therapy
• Select the target
• select a sound pair contrasting this binary
feature
one sound has to contain the feature and
the other must not;
one sound is typically in the child’s
inventory and one is not
• earlier developing sounds have priority
Minimal opposition contrast therapy
• Select two sounds with as many articulatory
similarities as possible;
• earlier sounds have priority;
• substitutions with greater impact on
intelligibility have priority
• stimulable sounds have priority
Maximal opposition therapy
• Choose sounds that are productionally very
different in terms of P-M-V or distinctive
features
• sounds should not be in inventory and
should be maximally different
• discrimination is not trained - only imitation
and spontaneous production
Multiple opposition therapy
• Used with children who are typically
unintelligible and who neutralize several
consonants into one;
• Aims at impacting system across rule set;
• Choose pairs (often will result in nonsense
syllable pairings) that cut across PMV
• Two, three of four pairings recommended
Metaphon therapy
• Phase One
concept level
sound level
phoneme level
word level
• Phase Two
take turns in producing minimal pair
words
Cognitive learning as basis for
phonological intervention
In contrast to traditional modes of articulation
therapy, the goal of therapy from a phonological
perspective is not production of target sounds, but
instead involves a conceptualization or understanding of the system or rules and regulations
underlying American English phonology…once the
child understands the rule-bound contrast between
his production and the correct production, it will be
easy to facilitate improvement.
Underlying principles:
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Emphasis is not the sound, but the rule
rule is always taught in context of contrast
no correct/incorrect value judgements
no instructions about phonetic placement
avoid direct imitation
work on one rule at a time
deemphasize auditory discrimination
Use of imagery
• Stopping of fricatives:
running vs. dripping; popping vs.
blowing
• fronting of velars:
front vs. back; tippy vs. throaty
• deletion of final consonants:
open vs. closed; tail vs. no tail
• cluster reduction:
friendly vs. lonely
THERAPY REGIMEN
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STEP 1 - semantic identification
STEP 2 - production in nonsense syllables
STEP 3 - semantic ID in words
STEP 4 - production in words
STEP 5 - semantic ID in phrases
STEP 6 - production in phrases
STEP 7 - production in conversation
Priorities for intervention:
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Syllable structures rules first (DFC.WSD)
assimilation rules
manner rules (SF, gliding of liquids)
placement rules (FV, backing of alveolars)
late disappearing rules (CR, gliding of /r/,
stopping of “th”)
• voicing rules
Assorted issues:
• Age to begin: data on individual sounds
does not apply. Not enough data
• Well-suited for group work
• Exclude parents
• Single out a sound for state/school data
• Number of errors is insignificant
• Can be used with adults, especially FAR
Assorted issues, continued
• To cycle or not to cycle
• choose your first client carefully
• bypass the child’s learned phonological
helplessness
• avoid wasting time on unsuccessful
activities
• believe that the child isn’t producing, rather
than can’t produce, some sounds.
Child with an emerging phonological system
• Teach words that begin with sounds in inventory
• select words with syllable shapes that child uses
and expand to new shapes
• use normal developmental sequence of consonants
as a guide
• introduce new consonants in a babbling activity
• introduction new words
• vary their grammatical category
• reinforce all productions, even approximations