The Specification
The social distribution of crime and deviance
by age, ethnicity, gender, locality and social
class, including recent patterns and trends
in crime.
Study of statistics and other evidence on the social distribution of crime by
age, ethnicity, gender, locality and social class, including recent patterns and
trends.
Issues related to and explanations of the social distribution of crime and
deviance by age: juvenile delinquency and youth crime.
Issues related to and explanations of the social distribution of crime and
deviance and ethnicity: explanations from different theories, racism in the
criminal justice system.
Issues related to and explanations of the social distribution of crime and
deviance and gender: explanations of the rates of male and female crime,
the gendering of crime, chivalry thesis, the gender deal.
Issues related to and explanations of the social distribution of crime and
deviance and locality: rural and urban crime.
Issues related to and explanations of the social distribution of crime and
deviance and social class: explanations from different theories; white collar
crime; occupational crime.
Activity 1:
Build your own question
Examine sociological explanations of …
Assess the usefulness of …
Assess the view …
Examine some of the issues related to …
Activity 2: Whiteboards
For age, social class and location.
Brainstorm the trends and possible
explanations why?
Activity: A3 revision page.
Fold into 6 squares.
Create definitive revision guides for:
Age
Social Class
Location
Age and Crime – Juvenile delinquents
Learning Objectives
•To explain the meaning of juvenile delinquents
•To explore factors that contribute to delinquent behaviour
Starter
Activity
Key question
What is
Delinquency?
How did you do?
Under-age sexual
activity for girls
It may include crime,
but also covers deviant
behaviour
Delinquency refers
to….
Staying out late,
swearing, outrageous
dress, tattoos and body
piercing
Undesirable,
Anti-social
behaviour of
young people
It was never like that in
my day, young people
knew how to behave….
Not true, we teddy boys
displayed delinquent
behaviour
So did us
punks!
How do these factors link to
delinquency?
•Family problems, parents
divorce
•Failure at school
•Use of alcohol and drugs
Task

Create a poster explaining how peer
groups and subcultures can encourage
delinquent behaviour
Success Criteria
Include
•Albert Cohen's theory of status
frustration
•David Matza two sets of values
Plenary
What can be done about delinquent
behaviour?
Now check your suggestions
against those highlighted
on page 277
Key facts
 Young, working class are
more likely to commit
criminal acts than older,
middle class.
 A typical prisoner in the
U.K will be under 30 and
working class.
 Offending rises steeply
from 10-18 then declines
sharply after 24.
Labelling theory
– age and class
Young working class
people especially
boys are more likely
to be stopped and
searched and
labelled as criminals
by the police and
courts.
Functionalism – Age and
class
Functionalists like Merton say
young working class people
commit crime because they
strive for success but lack the
necessary educational skills
and qualifications. They want
the goal of success but must
achieve it illegitimately.
(Innovation)
Age – class and
crime
Left realism – Age and class
Most crime is committed by working
class people against working class
people. Perhaps because relative
deprivation, individualism and that
fact we live in a bulimic society (the
idea that we are exposed to consumer
products but cannot consume them).
Subcultural theory – Age
and class
Young working class people
join gangs because they are
frustrated at their status in
mainstream society. They
solve this by rejecting
mainstream norms and values,
joining a gang and achieving a
status through non-utilitarian
crimes.
Right realism – class
Right realists like Charles
Murray believe that single
parent families fail to
socialise their children
effectively due to a lack
of male role models, they
also grow up to be
welfare dependant.
Marxism
The working class are no more criminals
than anyone else, however the law
protects the bourgeoisie so the working
class become easier to criminalise. The
working class get harsher punishments
compared with those who commit white
collar crimes.
Blue collar crime
Crimes committed by
manual factory
workers (working
class), these are
street crimes like
theft which are in
public view.
White collar crime
Very difficult to prosecute
due to problems of who is
responsible and who is a
victim. Much white collar
crime is not dealt with
criminally but
administratively by
external agencies like the
EPA (Environmental
Protection Agency) and the
Trading Standards Agency.
Only serious cases go to
court.
Social class and
crime
White collar crime
Crimes committed by
office workers
(middle/upper
class) like fraud,
these are often hidden
from public view.
Case study – Guinness affair
False claims of success led to high share prices and
company directors making millions. Gerald Ronson
received a one -year sentence in Ford (open prison)
and was released on parole after serving about 6
months. He is still a successful businessman and one
of Britain's 100 richest people.
Key ideas
There is a link between
where offenders live and
crimes committed in that
area.
Environmental criminology
is concerned with mapping
the spatial distribution of
offenders and offences.
Shaw and McKay
Did a study of delinquency in
Chicago (1927-33). They
divided the city of into five
zones, drawn at two-mile
intervals, radiating outwards
in concentric circles from the
CBD (Central Business
District).
Location –
Environmental
Criminology
The least delinquents
live in Zone 5 – 1.8 %
mainly commuter zone
with expensive houses.
The most delinquents live
in Zone 1 – 9.8% deteriorating housing and
factories, high population
turnover
They found the
delinquency living rates
declined from zone 1 to
5. They argue that zone
1 has the highest rate of
delinquents because it is
characterised by a high
population turnover and
mixture of different
cultures. They called
this the zone of
transition
They concluded that
the zone of transition
had social
disorganisation (low
social cohesion and
little sense of
community) making it
a breading ground for
deviants.
Explanations
Area offending rates in Britain
Studies in Britain contradict Shaw
and Mckay and the idea of
determining crime by location.
Some studies show higher numbers
of offenders living in council
housing estates rather than city
centres (Morris 1957). One study of
two council estates separated by a
road showed one had 300% more
offenders living there than the other
(Bottoms, Mawby and Xanthos
1989) .
They say most
offenders commit
crimes in areas they
are familiar with;
because of an
offender’s
awareness of space,
and opportunities
for crime.
Opportunity theory
Crimes will be committed in locations where
targets are attractive to criminals meaning it
has a high monetary value and can easily be
transported and sold. Coupled with
accessibility meaning if physical access is
easy and chances of being observed are low.
Location –
Environmental
Criminology
Cognitive mapping (1984)
Patricia and Paul Brantingham
argue that we have cognitive maps
inside out heads which outline our
perception of the geography of our
local area. These maps contain
places we are familiar with such as
home, school or work, places of
entertainment etc.
Routine activities
theory
Argues that crimes are
likely to happen in
particular places
because of three things:
There are likely
offenders in the area,
attractive targets and
an absence of capable
guardians like property
owners.
Environmental
Theory
Key points

Offenders tend to be concentrated in particular
areas – certain towns/cities and certain places in
those towns/cities.
The spatial distribution of offenders is not random

Certain crimes also tend to committed in certain
areas
The spatial distribution of offences is not random
Environmental Theory

Also called urban criminology

Concerned with the relationship between
crime and where people live, work and
spend their leisure time.
The Chicago School

Group of sociologists who argued that the
growth of cities produced distinctive
neighbourhoods (1920’s)

Shaw and McKay (1942) applies this perspective
to the study of delinquency.

They divided the city of Chicago into 5 zones
and mapped the residences of male delinquents.

Shaw and McKay found similar patterns in
Chicago from 1900 to 1906 and from 1917
to 1923.

Zone 1 has the highest rate of delinquents
– as an area it is characterised by a high
population turnover and cultural
heterogeneity (a mixture of different
cultures)

This cultural heterogeneity is because
newcomers that come to cities usually
start in zone 1 (CBD) – Cheapest rents.

These people often come from a variety of
cultural backgrounds.
Chicago: Black and White rural migrants
from southern US states; Irish; Italian;
Greek and Polish
Zone 1

Has a shifting population. This central
urban area is a ‘zone of transition’

This means that new people arrive, make
money and move out to higher income
areas.

This makes room for fresh blood in zone 1
– new migrants move in. High population
turnover.
Social Disorganisation

High rate of population turnover plus cultural heterogeneity
equals social disorganisation.

Less sense of community or social cohesion – people do not
feel attached to their community (Hirschi, bonds of
attachment).

Social controls such as gossip, public disapproval and public
surveillance are not enough to prevent criminal behaviour
developing, so grows and then becomes the norm for newer
generations (and the problem develops). This theory later
developed into what Shaw and McKay called ‘cultural
transmission’.
Evaluation points

These methods were applied to a number of US
cities and found similar results.

Lander (1962) found similar results in Baltimore
– high proportion of offenders in a shifting
population area, but there were also stable
communities in zone 1 – and these were
characterised as having less crime.
- Both low income areas, so population stability is
a clear factor.

Some of Shaw and McKay’s theories echo
Merton (Strain Theory)

They suggest (like Merton) that crime in
low-income areas is often employed to
acquire ‘the economic and social values
generally idealised in our culture.’

They innovate and turn to crime rather
than achieve success by conventional
(normal) means.
What is crime like in London?
http://maps.met.police.uk/
 http://maps.police.uk/view/?q=n43ad&url
=

Sutherland (1974)
Differential association
The more time you spend with people who
are not law-abiding the more likely you are
to turn to crime yourself.
As there is more crime in inner-city, there is
more chance of criminals influencing others.
1. Morris (1957) Croydon.
2. Baldwin and Bottoms (1976) Sheffield.
3. Gill (1977) Liverpool
Morris (1957) Croydon
Highest crime rate was on certain council
estates, but these areas were tight knit and
not disorganised.
High-crime areas caused by councils
housing policies - ‘problem families’
together (created high crime areas)
‘Tipping’ Baldwin and Bottoms (1976)





An area is seen as ‘going downhill’
Could be due to council policies or ‘problem
families’ moving in – could also be due to a real or
imagined increase in anti-social behaviour.
Law abiding residents move out soon as they can,
and friends or relatives of problem families move
in.
If the antisocial families outweigh the respectable
families, then tipping speeds up.
Many see the solution as being the council placing
families or problem people more responsibly – and
not just grouping them.
Baldwin & Bottoms (1976)
Sheffield Council created sink estates.
 Problem families were housed in certain
areas – other types of family refused to
take houses there.
 Labelling and self-fulfilling prophecy take
place.
 Similar to Broken Windows Theory.

Park Hill Estate - Tipping

http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/puffbox/hyper
puff/audiovideo/england/west_yorkshire/8
024796.stm

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E9cfAdGiFA

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GQXkb
BzkT28
How do neighbourhoods ‘tip’?
‘Broken Windows’ – Wilson and Kelling (2003)
 Informal social controls are essential for crime
prevention (neighbourhood watch etc)
 These controls break down when buildings are
left in a state of disrepair, and when disorderly
behaviour is unchallenged.
 Graffiti, vandalism and anti-social behaviour
increases so the neighbourhood tips.
 Social controls break down, law-abiding citizens
become scared to go out. Disorder becomes
widespread
Gill (1977) Liverpool
Luke St in Liverpool became a notorious
road for trouble.
 People who lived there found they were
discriminated against in jobs, shops and
HP agreements.
 A Luke Street address was a negative
label.

Lash & Urry (1994)

Have identified ‘Wild Spaces’.

Some towns have no-go areas where
crime is such a problem that even the
police do not go.

Normal rules are suspended in these areas
and Durkheim’s state of anomie has been
reached.
Explanations for the
spatial distribution of offences
Opportunity theory
 Concerned with the opportunities for
crime.
Target Attractiveness:

Property can be attractive if it is of high
value and easy to transport and sell (eg,
laptop)
Accessibility:
A target is accessible if it can be seen, if access is
easy and the chances of being seen are low.
However, in terms of target attractiveness, the
most valuable cars and their contents will be found
in a wealthy area
–
despite this, low-income, multiethnic areas still have higher
rates of vehicle related crime
Opportunity theory cannot explain the spatial
distribution of crime alone.
Routine activities theory (Cohen &
Felson 1979)
1) A suitable target is available &
attractive (object or person)
2) There is the lack of a suitable guardian
to prevent the crime from happening
(e.g., Police, homeowner)
3) A likely and motivated offender is
present.

RAT suggests that criminals base their
activities on their routines – where they
frequent, the places they live, the areas
they know
– they use their knowledge to weigh up
whether the crime will be successful or not
RAT – what does it stand for?
Routine Activities Theory
Cohen and Felson (1979)
Explains why crimes happen in the places they do…
Target Attractiveness
2) Lack of a suitable guardian t stop the crime
happening
3) A likely and motivated offender is present
1)
Explaining Spatial Distribution
of offenders and offences
Key points:

Most offences occur within a short
distance of the offenders home!

Study in Sheff found that, on average,
offenders travelled only 1.93 miles from
their home to commit a crime
(Wiles and Costello (2000)
I don’t really
like travelling
that far!
Cognitive Maps –
Brantingham and Brantingham
(1984)

Argued that we have cognitive maps
inside our head – maps of the geography
of our local area.

Contain places we are familiar with, and
the routes to these places – work, homes,
school, shops etc.

The Brantinghams suggest that most
offenders will commit crimes in areas they
are familiar with.

They believe there is a relationship
between awareness of space,
opportunities for crime and areas where
offences occur.
Wiles and Costello (2000)

Study in Sheff – they categorised
neighbourhoods into high, medium and
low offence rates and offender rates.

High offender and high offence rates were
found in the same area.

There were no cases of high offender
rates and low offence rates. (Supports
RAT)
Criticisms of Environmental Theory
1.
Accepts official statistics as the truth.
2.
Fails to explain why crime happens in the
first place?
3.
Mixed evidence from UK.
4.
Left realist & right realists have different
solutions for the problem of Urban Crime.