RITUAL, RELIGION
AND MYTH
DEFINITION OF RITUAL
 A ritual must fit into four categories. These four categories are that
it must be a repetitive social practice, it must be set off from the
routines of day to day life, it must follow some sort of ritual schema,
and it must be encoded in myth. Ritual often has its roots in myth and
religion, tying itself to ancient practices between the divine and
humans. However, a ritual does not have to be religious in nature;
graduation ceremonies and birthday parties are rituals as well
EXAMPLES OF RITUALS
Religions have different rituals and practices that
accompany and highlight religious experience.
Familiar examples in the United States include
attending church, praying, baptism and other rituals
that have become very ingrained in Western culture
as part of the Christian religion. For example
American Christians pray before a meal, in time of
grief and guidance, for a friend or family member
and before and after waking up. However these
rituals are only a very small part of the vast
diversity of practices that religions from around the
world use.
 In the Sierra Madre Occidentals, where the Huichol Indians live, there is a
sacred place called Wirikuta. The Huichol Indians make a pilgrimage to this
sacred land to collect the peyote cactus. The sacred peyote cactus, which can
induce hallucinogenic visions, is eaten by the Huichol as a way to connect their
three key symbols of life. These symbols are maize, deer and peyote. Religious
practice varies greatly among cultures.
SICILY
 An example of an old ritual that is encoded in myth and religious symbolism can be
found in the catacombs of Sicily where over 2,000 dead bodies are kept. Most of these
bodies have been embalmed or mummified and dressed in the attire that suited their
profession, many of them being nobles, professionals, and merchants. The oldest body
dates from 1599, while the freshest have been dated to the 19th century. The truth of
the reasons for mummifying of some of Sicily’s most important people is still
surrounded by myth. Aside from the myths, many used to go down to the crypts and
“pray for the souls of dead relatives” to the mummified clergymen. This type of
worship can be seen in many shamanistic cultures.
SINHALESE BUDDHISTS
 Another great example of Ritual can be seen in the Sinhalese Buddhists of Sri
Lanka. To cure people of illness the Sinhalese perform an elaborate exorcism ritual
that involves all night dancing, singing, and role playing. The ceremony traditionally
lasts from Midnight until 6 AM. At Midnight, costumed actors appear to portray the
afflicting demons. As time passes, these figures are turned into comedic figures of
ridicule. At 3 AM actors dressed as Sinhalese gods appear and reassert their
dominance. The final performance, done around 6 AM, the absurdity of the demons if
confirmed and the ritual ends. It is important to note that the ritual involves several
crucial and distinctly separate phases. [4]
CHRISTIANITY
 There also many rituals in traditional American and European culture. For
instance, rituals play an integral part in Christianity the predominant religion
in Europe, America and increasingly in China and many other parts of the
world. There are many denominations of the Christian church and they differ
in the applications of some rituals, but some common ones are worshiping
and praying as a community, baptism, confession, and communion, or the use
of bread and wine to symbolize the blood and body of Christ and the power
of his salvation.
ISLAM
 Participants of Islam, if possible make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once
in their lives and must pray five times (beginning at five A.M.) every day at
specific times in the direction of Mecca, which is located in Saudi Arabia .
JUDAISM
 In Judaism, rituals include lighting the menorah, celebrating
Hanukkah, abstaining from the consumption of dairy and pork, and
eating unleavened bread during Passover
HINDUISM
 Hinduism involves regularly attending temples to burn incense and
offerings including bread and flowers to each God and Goddess’s
alter.
NATIVE AMERICAN
 Rituals in the southwest region of the United States are also very common, especially among the
Native American pueblos. In Sandia Pueblo, a pueblo in New Mexico near Albuquerque, the annual
Buffalo Festival takes place. Early in the morning the males go into the Sandia mountains and re-enact a
hunting party that they're ancestors once participated in. Once they return the dancing ceremonies begin.
The people of the pueblo who are a certain age begin to participate in the dancing, which is an especially
big deal to the children who have finally come of age and have their first dance. After the first dance, a
family will invite others into their home to eat a large feast usually consisting of buffalo. After this feast
another dance takes place followed by a different families invitation to feast at their home. In their
community it is considered rude to say no and refuse food so its safe to say that nobody goes hungry. This
cycle of dancing and feasting continues until dusk when the Throw occurs. The Throw is when the family
of the children who get to have their first dance go onto the roofs of houses in the main square and
throw off practical household items, such as spatulas and spoons. This gut-stuffing ritual has taken place
for many years and will certainly continue for many more.
ORIGINS OF RELIGION
THE GOLDEN BOUGH
 James Frazer's ethnology of religion entitled The Golden Bough,
published in 1890 and again in 1922, offered a thorough review of the
cross cultural variation in ideas related to magic, myth and religion
that were known to Europeans at the time. Taking an evolutionary
approach he proposed that human belief progressed through three
stages: primitive magic, which was displaced by religion, which in turn
was replaced by science.
 Anthropologists have suggested that religion was created out of a failure of magic to give
a satisfying answer to the 'big questions' inherent across human civilization. Initially, the term
religion was used to describe a domain of western culture and belief in the supernatural. The
definition of religion has been disputed among anthropologists because some would define
the 'supernatural' as something that does not exist, and some define it as something that is
simply 'beyond sensed'. Recently, evolutionary biologist and psychologists have begun to look
at religion in terms of it being a natural evolution of human culture over time. Much like the
idea of culture itself, they believe that religion was replicated, adapted and evolved from
generation to generation in much the same way that human genes do.
MAGIC
MAGIC
 Magic is defined as a set of beliefs and practices designed to control the visible or invisible
world for specific purposes. Magic often offers ways to explain the world, very similar to Religion
and Sciences. In fact, religion and science evolved out of the inability of magic to explain the
natural world. It is used as an attempt to create change in the natural world through supernatural
means. Depending on the culture, magic can be used by humans or can originate from some higher
power. In many cultures those who are suspected of using magic are feared and hated, but in other
cultures they are respected leaders. In the past, religion has been said to have developed as a result
of magic failing to explain everything.(Frazer) In the United States, for example, people who didn't
fit cultural norms, mostly elderly women, they were prosecuted for witchcraft on the assumption
that they were practitioners of magic in a society where magic is straight from the devil. There are
two types of magic, imitative and contagious.
IMITATIVE MAGIC
Imitative magic attempts to control the universe
through the mimicking of a desired event (e.g. a rain
dance to bring rain to dry crops).
A Voodoo doll is an example of imitative magic. The
Voodoo doll is used as a symbolic representation of
another person. A person that practices Voodoo
magic may stick pins into a doll in order to inflict
harm or put a curse on another individual. It is
thought that by harming the Voodoo doll, one can
manipulate the physical or emotional state of the
person that the doll is meant to represent.
In the Babar Archipelago, when a woman wants a child, she invites a man from the
village who has a large family to pray to Upulero, the spirit of the sun. A doll out
of red cloth is made and held to the woman's breast as if it was suckling. The man
who was invited over grabs a chicken by the leg and holds it over the woman's
head saying "O Upulero, make use of this fowl; let fall, let descend a child, I
beseech you, I entreat you, let a child fall and descend into my hands and onto my
lap." He then asks the women if the baby has come and she says "Yes, it's already
suckling". The man then holds the fowl over the husbands' head with a another
prayer recited, and the chicken is killed and laid out for sacrifice. This ceremony
blends together the ideas of imitative magic and religion. (Frazer, 2003)
CONTAGIOUS MAGIC
 Contagious magic involves the use of physical objects that have been in contact
with the person who the magic is to affect, like a toenail. Contagious magic is often
associated with witchcraft, a basic concept, one that shapes their experience of
adversity, in which all deaths are due to witchcraft and must be avenged by magic (p.
216 Schultz & Lavenda). Despite the stereotypes of European American witchcraft old hags dressed in black, riding on broomsticks, casting spells, causing milk to sour
or people to sicken - some witchcrafts are quite tame and do not involve the hurting
of others.[7] Contemporary Wicca is often associated with witchcraft, and it is
disputed among the Wicca community whether they should self identify as witches.
WICCANS
 Most Wiccans use what is known as "white magic." White magic is often used for healing,
focusing the individual (or group, depending on circumstances), speaking to deity, meditation, and
cleansing a space or object. Generally, first the priest or priestess will cast a circle (everyone does it
a little differently) and call the God and Goddess to watch over the work of the day, whether it be
to raise energy for a sick friend or to cleanse a new apartment. The four elements (air, earth, fire,
and water) are usually represented in various ways, and they help make the circle complete. The
work is performed within the created "sacred space" of the circle, and then broken down when
the work is complete. A meal is often served after circle, to rejuvenate the participants.
 Nonetheless, contagious magic is still practiced today within the U.S, usually
for beneficial and positive outcomes. For example, many people still use
poppets (much like voodoo dolls) which are made with someone's personal
possessions in order to draw positive energy into that person's life.
[8]
As a
harmful example, the ability that a Navajo witch has to cause you physical pain
because they have a piece of your hair is an example of Contagious magic.
EXAMPLES
 An example of contagious magic among Australian tribes is a custom of
removing a young male's front tooth in an initiation ceremony. In some of the tribes
in New South Wales the tooth was placed under the bark of a tree; if the bark grew
over the tooth or the tooth fell out then the boy would have good health, but if the
tooth was exposed he would have diseases of the mouth. The tooth was out into the
care of an influential man in the tribe and passed from man to man, the tooth was to
be passed by hand. The tooth was never to touch any magical substance because it
would seep into the tooth and harm the boy/man that it came from.
EXAMPLES
 Using the afterbirth or placenta is another form of contagious magic. The belief that the
afterbirth can affect the rest of an individual’s life is believed around the world in vastly differing
contemporary societies. While it is rich in nutrients, the afterbirth isn't only eaten; there are many
different rituals around the placenta. For example, the Lom on the island of Bangka in Indonesia,
clean the placenta immediately after birth, "regardless of its subsequent treatment." They believe
this prevents the baby's abdomen from bloating.[9] Common beliefs are that the afterbirth will
influence the character and career of the person, making him, if it is a man, a nimble climber, a
strong swimmer, a skillful hunter, or a brave soldier, and making her, if it is a woman, a cunning
seamstress, and a good baker. Even though the afterbirth is not thought of as much more than
another part of the birthing process, midwives in the United States to this day, still ask the family
if they would like to have the afterbirth for any ritual purposes.
FUNCTIONS OF
RELIGION
From an anthropological standpoint, religion serves many functions in society.
First, it is believed that religion serves to explain the physical world. In this
sense, religion offers to answer questions like: “How was the Universe created?
How were the Earth and Sun created? How did plants and animals come to be?”
Furthermore, religion attempts to answer (or to help cope with) the “big
questions” in life. Such questions may range anywhere from: “Who am I?" and
"Why am I here?" to "What is my purpose in life?" and "What happens when I
die?” Although religion does not directly answer all of these “big questions,”
religion helps individuals cope with such daunting thoughts, making the lives of
followers of arguably all religions more cohesive. It allows individuals to
concentrate their efforts on their day to day life, rather than worrying about
unanswerable questions. Religion creates a foundation in life to build upon, as
well as for cultures to come together.
Religion also attempts to control or reduce uncertainty. This concept ties
into the idea that religion serves to answer the “big questions” of life. By
attempting to offer answers to such large questions, religion fulfils an
individuals “need to know,” and thus offers some relief to an individual’s
uncertainty about life. However, it is important to note that this concept of
believing in the answers religion offers is called faith, in which an individual
believes in something regardless of whether there is physical proof or not.
Through the centuries there has been much debate over whether faith in a
religion is positive or is a detriment to mankind. While the fourteenth
century Italian poet and philosopher Dante wrote about the virtues or
religion, the nineteenth century German philosopher Nietzsche argued that
accepting a dogmatic moral code on faith alone is not only illogical but
fundamentally limits human potential.
French sociologist Émile Durkheim claims that in addition, religion attempts
to offer a singular answer to life, and thus allows for the social cohesion of a
society through its shared beliefs. So, in a sense, religion serves to unite a
society under a system of belief (religion), which leads to the group’s ability to
successfully interact within itself and allows for social control. Religion can
also potentially divide people, as we see with religious wars in the past or in the
present, for example the Sunni and Shiite are in constant turbulence and war
<ref: http://hnn.us/articles/934.html>. Religion serves to define groups of
people, who identify intimately with the beliefs encompassed by their religion,
which leads to a shared worldview.
Finally, according to Clifford James Geertz, an American anthropologist,
religion attempts to offer a structure of meaning to life. Geertz believed that
religion served as a model for how life should exist. Therefore religion
demonstrates how individuals should conduct themselves in everyday life. An
example of this is the Christian catchphrase, “What Would Jesus Do?
(WWJD)”. By asking this question, Christians attempt to live their everyday
lives by Jesus’ example and directives, such as the concept of loving one’s
neighbor as yourself, which can be found in Matthew, chapter 19, verse 16 in
the Christian Holy Bible.
Overall, it is important to note from an anthropological point of view,
religion does not serve a singular purpose, but in fact serves many purposes
in society. While religions unite a society, they also offer answers to those in
need, while giving a society rules of conduct in which adherents should live
by. Most importantly religions add to and define cultures. Therefore, by
studying a culture’s religion, the culture itself can be better understood
CONCEPTS OF
SUPERNATURAL BEINGS
ANIMATISM
Animatism is the belief in a
supernatural power that is not
necessarily a supernatural being
or animal. In this sense it is the
belief that the supernatural is all
A Polynesian carving, spirits are said
to be able to manifest themselves in
any object. Mana is conveyed trough
tiki statues in Polynesian culture
around
anything.
you
and
could
be
ANIMATISM
 Individuals that hold these beliefs explain a powerful unseen force that can potentially be
found all around us in people, animals, plants and features of nature such as volcanoes and the
ocean, for example, Mother Earth (believing in the non-living). The belief of animatism doesn't
assign a spiritual identity, but instead believes in a single unified power that can manifest itself
into objects or be acquired by and controlled by certain individuals. The term was coined by the
British Anthropologist Robert Marett as "a belief in a generalized, impersonal power over which
people have some measure of control "Animatism is the cause of consciousness and personality
to natural phenomena such as thunderstorms and earthquakes and to objects such as plants and
stones. Inanimate objects, forces and plants have personalities and wills, but not souls. These
forces are inanimate and impersonal, This is not true for those beliefs relating to animism.
EXAMPLES
 In the South Pacific Polynesian cultures the power of animatism is commonly referred to as "Mana".
For them it is a force that is inherent in all objects, plants, and animals (including people) to different
degrees. Some things or people have more of it than others and are, therefore, potentially dangerous.
Often a chief must have some with him at all times. Dangerous places such as volcanoes were considered
to have concentrated amounts of mana. This impersonal power is much like the Force described in the
popular Star Wars movies. Mana is a spiritual quality considered to have supernatural origin – a sacred
impersonal force existing in the universe. Therefore to have mana is to have influence and authority, and
efficacy – the power to perform in a given situation. Mana, Marett states, is a concentrated form of
animatistic force found within any of these objects that confer power, strength, and success. For
example, the Polynesians, believe in mana as a force inherent in all objects. This essential quality of mana
is not limited to persons – folks, governments, places and inanimate objects can possess mana.
EUHEMERISM
 Euhemerism is a rationalizing method of interpretation that was
named after the Greek mythographer (compiler of
myths)
Euhemerus. Euhemerism is the idea that a real person can become a
deity or a supernatural immortal being through the constant telling
and re-telling of their stories that leads to the distortion of the actual
story. For example, many people believe that Hercules was a real
person but was deified through the stories of his life and after some
time the embellished story became the accepted story. Therefore,
Hercules was remembered as a deity. Euhemerism is the worship and
belief in an ancestor or historical being who is thought to have
supernatural power.
ANIMISM
 Animism is the belief that natural objects,
natural phenomena, and the universe all
possess individual souls. Deriving from the
Latin word anima, meaning a breath or soul,
it is one of man’s oldest beliefs dating back
to the Paleolithic Age and is greatly
associated with primitive peoples, those
without a written tradition.
In terms of practices, many animistic cultures worshiped plant life,
including trees and plants, because of their beauty, strength, and life. It is
thought that all beings, including plants, have a soul. This is why in many
Native American cultures totem poles are major symbolic structures, and
the main focus of many rituals. Centuries ago the Coast Salish Indian Tribe
was well known for its belief in spiritual transmutation between humans
and animals, a trait of animistic culture. Living in Cowichan Valley, on
Vancouver Island they created hundreds of totem poles in order to
showcase the spirits believed to be living in the animals portrayed upon the
totems, and the trees the totems themselves were made out of.
NEW ANIMISM
 As mentioned, animism is greatly associated with more primitive cultures.
However, “new animism” a more symbolic and less literal form of animism is still
found in many different cultures worldwide^ . This form of the religion is focused on
the different types of souls in different types of people from all different cultures. It
is more acutely understood as the teaching of how to have respectful relationships
with human beings, as well as the natural world. It is also to be understood, that not
all things have a truly human soul, including humans, and part of animism is
distinguishing what/who is truly human, and what/who is not. The basic idea is that
life is always lived in relationship with other soul-ridden beings, and showing the
utmost respect for these relationships is vital to survival
DUALISM
 Dualism in the sense of theology is a belief in two supernatural god like figures.
Bitheism/Ditheism are two forms that both involve the two gods. Bitheism implies that the
gods live in peace and ditheism implies that there is opposition. This means that a ditheism
system would have one good and one evil god or one god that listened and helped and one that
ignored. A god of life and one of death is another example. An example of a Bitheism system
would be something like one god is of the sky and one of the wind. It is not always easy to
distinguish between the two, like a sky god who brings storms and rain and an earth god who
brings fertility and tremors. The ancient Greek philosopher Plato also had a hand in dualism, but
more in the sense of body and soul. In a moral sense Christianity is a dualism religion with the
opposition of God and Satan.
ANTHROPOMORPHISM
 Anthropomorphism is the concept of
attributing human characteristics or behaviors
to a non-human being. This can mean
animals, plants, and almost anything else
taking on the personality of a human.
Different
religions
have
different
interpretations of anthropomorphism, but in
general it is to show their God as something
or someone else.
EXAMPLES OF
ANTHROPOMORPHISM
 For Catholics the purpose of drawings and other forms of
anthropomorphism is to reach our philosophic knowledge of God.
 In Greek mythology anthropomorphic animals are representations
of their Gods. The Greeks show that the gods are different from us
by attributing them to the features of being ‘immortal and ageless.’
EXAMPLES
 In the anthropology of religion the primary use of anthropomorphism is to
embody the supernatural in human form. An example that is most defined in
Western culture is in Judaism and Christianity, God has given human feelings of
anger and jealousy or compassion and forgiveness. All human qualities that have
been given to God in human settings that surround humanity, where these feelings
are all emotions that humans have observed and none that we haven't. A functional
analysis of anthropomorphism proposes that when the supernatural takes human
form, it may be easier for people to relate to the concepts promoted by religion.
NONRELIGIOUS EXAMPLES
 Another use of anthropomorphism is the blending of human traits with other beings. “John
Tenniel's depiction of an anthropomorphic rabbit was featured in the first chapter of Lewis
Carroll's Alice's Adventures in Wonderland.”[2] This is an example of anthropomorphism in the
form of a children story. Another example in Western culture is Goldilocks and The Three Bears.
All the bears talk and walk around like humans do. Both of these stories bring us closer to animals
because they seem more like us, they seem friendly like someone a child would want to be friends
with. This is a longstanding culture tradition in Western culture and many other cultures in fables
and myths. Though many people do not like being compared to animals, especially primates,
because they want to be seen as separate from animals.
ZOOMORPHIC
 Zoomorphism is the attribution of
animal qualities or
characteristics to a God. It is the act of attributing animal qualities to
things that are not animals. Many times it is mistaken for
anthropomorphism, which attributes human characteristics or
qualities to things that are not human. Zoomorphic supernaturals can
be found in many religions, such as Hinduism with the deity
Ganesha. Other examples include images of male deities with antlers
that appeared in prehistoric art in countries as far apart as France,
Australia, Canada and China.
EXAMPLES OF
ZOOMORPHIC
 An example of zoomorphism can also be found Egyptian mythology with the god Anubis. In Egyptian
mythology Anubis was the god that protected the dead and brought them to the after life until Osiris took over
the position and then Anubis became the gate keeper of the dead.[4]
 In Egyptian Mythology death was not seen as the last stage of life it was seen as the stage of life where a
person was at rest while they waited for the rebirth of their soul. The burial process of the Egyptians was very
elaborate and complex because it was meant to protect the spirits from the different levels of good and evil.[5]
 Anubis had the duties of watching over the mummification process, conduct the souls through the
underworld, and placing the hearts of the souls on the Scales of Justice during the Judging of the Heart, and
feeds the souls of the wicked people to Ammit.[6]
 Anubis has the head of a jackal with the body of a human. His head is the color black because black is the
color associated with death and the rotting color of flesh and the black soil of the Nile valley. The head of a
jackal is significant because in ancient times jackals would hunt at the edges of deserts near the necropolis and
cemeteries and ravage the desert graves throughout Egypt.[7]
TOTEMISM
 Totemism is a religious practice in which a family is seen to have a close kinship
with a particular spiritual being, such as an animal or plant. The entity, or totem, is
thought to interact with a given kin group or an individual and to serve as their emblem
or symbol.[[8]] Each spirit can be associated with an animal of some kind as a symbol
of power or any other type of attribute. Masks are sometimes used as well to recreate
the spirit or being. Usually seen through the use of Totem poles with Native American
families in traditional societies. Though this is usually seen in Native American
traditional societies, this is something that is practiced all over the world, and it is not
exclusively associated with those groups of people. The term totem is derived from the
Ojibwa word ototeman, meaning “one’s brother-sister kin.” The grammatical root, ote,
signifies a blood relationship between brothers and sisters who have the same mother
and who may not marry each other.
[12]