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Annotated Bibliography
Educational Psychology - Dr. Shaunda Wood
Exercise and Cognitive Function
Lori McGuigan
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Introduction
In the sources below, there is much research suggesting that exercise enhances cognitive
performance, especially following physical activity or exercise.. I strongly believe that this is
research that needs to be considered and influence the future of how schools operate. One source
even goes into detail on how physical activity was integrated into science lessons and the
positive effects that resulted because of it, not to mention the enjoyment that students got from
participating! Other sources go on to explain various studies in relation to cognitive function and
physical activity/exercise. There is no shortage of research out there to suggest that movement
should be part of students’ everyday schooling, we simply need to take initiative and do it.
Sources
Hill, L., Williams, J., Aucott, L., Milne, J., Thomson, J., Greig, J., Munro, V. and Mon-Williams,
M. (2010). Exercising attention within the classroom. Developmental Medicine &
Child Neurology, 52 (10), p.929–934. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-8749.2010.03661.x
There have been many studies suggesting that exercise is beneficial not only in a
physical way but cognitively as well, using exercise to treat depression,
maintaining cognitive validity while experiencing the onset of old age, as well as
to reduce behavioural problems in children with autism, learning disorders, or
behavioural disorders. Since greater aerobic fitness is generally associated with
greater cognitive functioning, this study was conducted to find out if increased
physical exercise during the school day had an influence on cognitive
performance in the classroom for the remainder of the day in 1224 children aged
8-11. This was done using a counterbalances crossover design in Scotland over
the course of two weeks. Participants either participated in 15 minute teacher-led
exercise sessions in the first week following lunch time and did not participate in
the exercise the second week, or vise-versa. After each day in the two week
period, students completed one of five psychometric tests, assessing their
cognitive abilities over a range of areas (paced serial addition, size ordering,
listening span, digit-span backwards, and digit symbol encoding). After two
weeks, each student had done each test twice, having completed one after physical
exercise and one after no physical exercise. In congruence with what other studies
suggest, the results of this study did indeed show that overall the participant’s
cognitive performance was statistically significant in a positive way. Children
were more on task for the remainder of the school day, and their memory, goaloriented processing as well as inhibition all increased after exercise. Although
many studies (including this one) indicate that aerobic exercise is beneficial to
cognitive functioning, the degree of benefit is often dependent on the participants
in the study and the condition of exercise.
Jacobson, J. and Matthaeus, L. (2014). Athletics and executive functioning: How athletic
participation and sport type correlate with cognitive performance. Psychology of Sport
and Exercise, 15 (5), p.521–527. doi: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2014.05.005.
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This article was looking at the link that is generally found between exercise and
cognitive functioning. The study went further than simply exercise vs. no
exercise; through a 3-way quasi-experimental design, participants were classified
into groups according to athletic status, sport type, and level. When talking about
sport type, it means it is considered if the sport is self-paced (e.g. swimming,
running) or externally paced (e.g. tennis, soccer). Rather than solely look at
difference between athletes and non-athletes in relation to cognitive function, the
researchers also tested according to sport type, within the athletes. There were 54
participants aged 18-24 who underwent a series of tests looking at cognitive
functioning, specifically executive functioning. The validated tests that
participants completed were the Delise Kaplan Executive Function System (DKEFS) Tower Test and Colore Word Interference Test. These focused specifically
on decision making, problem solving, and inhibition. When comparing the results
between athletes and non-athletes, the athletes typically scored higher on these
tests than the non-athletes. These score differences were fairly significant,
especially in regards to problem solving and intuition. This alone shows that
subjects who partake in regular exercise have a metaphorical “leg up” when it
comes to cognitive functioning in comparison to non-athletes. Looking at results
within the scope of the athletes with regards to sport type: self-paced athletes
outscored externally-paced athletes and non-athletes on inhibition, while
externally-paced athletes to outscored self-paced athletes on problem solving.
Listed as a limitation in this study, was the sample size (54), and stated that
results would have been even stronger had there been a larger sample. Overall,
this study strongly supports the work of other studies, suggesting that physical
activity/exercise can lead to greater cognitive functioning.
Ramstetter, C., Murray, R. and Garner, A. (2010). The Crucial Role of Recess in Schools.
Journal of School Health, 80 (11), p.517–526. doi: 10.1111/j.1746-1561.2010.00537.x
This article describes a review of much research and literature that look place
previously looking at the value of recess during the school day. Each aspect of the
review of research that was looked at was under the umbrella of the optimal
development of the child. In addition to these studies, many policy
recommendations both on the national and international level were examined.
When looking specifically at recess that look place in these studied, play, fitness
and physical activity were focused on. Overall, when looking at the value of
recess in schools, there were a broad base of results found. Having said that, the
research strongly suggests that recess is largely beneficial for the well-being of
the child, specifically their physical, emotional, social and cognitive functioning.
In order for recess to have these positive effects on children, there needs to be
good supervision during recess, by well-trained individuals on a well-maintained
playground. Play should be fairly unstructured. Free-play allows students to thrive
in developing in creative, social and emotional ways. The article argues that
recess should be considered a child’s free time, and untouchable. It should not be
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taken away as punishment or for academic reasons. Despite the strong results
from the literature reviews as well as numerous studies, only 74% of elementary
schools in the United Stated report allowing time for all grades to have recess.
Whenever recess is, and for whatever duration, it should always be schedules for
a regular time. As stated, all students should be permitted time for unstructured
free-play for further development of their overall well-being, including cognitive
development.
Ratey, J. and Hagerman, with E. (2008). Spark: the revolutionary new science of exercise and the
brain. United States: Little, Brown and Company.
In this article, the authors state common results from research surrounding
physical education, then goes on to describe an approach that was put into place
in a kindergarten class because of these results. The research reviewed here was
consistent with other research done – the authors talk about how students are able
to remember activities more when being physically active and engaged. The
authors state that exercise acts as a prep for learning, and that regular physical
activity leads to increased scores on standardized tests. Physical education as well
as kinesthetic activities help to develop the motor skills and coordination of young
children, and it is even said that “fitness is a pivotal role in students’ academic
achievement”. Because of the strong suggestion that exercise and movement lead
to greater cognitive functioning, in one particular school, the physical education
teacher collaborated with other teachers who specialized in other areas
(particularly science) to incorporate this into classes other than physical
education. Together, teachers developed five stations in the gym that would
introduce students to force, motion and simple machines, as well as major muscle
groups of the body. Before the students participated in a rotation trough the
stations, teachers uncovered prior knowledge students held, and walked students
through each station, giving both an explanation and demonstration. One example
of a station was a Vernier force place attached to the wall. Students sat on a
scooter and pushed themselves away from the wall using their legs. The “force”
the exerted on the plate was displayed, and students started coming to conclusions
themselves surrounding these topics, for example, that pushing harder meant they
would go faster. The authors also go on to offer suggestions to alternate
equipment options (i.e. bathroom scales instead of force plates) and outlined some
safety precautions. Overall, this exert from the book was a demonstration on a
very experiential, hands-on activity that students were actively, physically
engaged in; students are likely to remember what they learned in this lesson
because of the approach taken.
Tomporowski, P., Davis, C. and Gregoski, M. (2006). Effects of Aerobic Exercise on
Overweight Children’s Cognitive Functioning. Medicine & Science in Sports &
Exercise, 38 (Supplement). doi: 10.1249/00005768-200605001-00134.
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This particular study was looking at the cognitive effects of aerobic exercise
training in overweight children. There were 94 students involved, between the
ages of 7-11. Subjects were divided into three groups: a low-dose groups (20
minutes per day of aerobic exercise), a high-dose group (40 minutes per day of
aerobic exercise), or a control group (no exercise). Exercise took place for five
days/week for the duration of 15 weeks. The test used to gauge students’
cognitive functioning was the Cognitive Assessment System (CAS). The test has
numerous components that it looks at specifically within cognitive functioning,
such as planning and attention. The CAS was administered on all students both
before and after the exercise period. Results from this study were strongest when
comparing the control group and the group with high-doses of exercise, being
classified as statistically different. Evidence from this study suggests that there are
positive effects on cognitive functioning (specifically executive functioning) that
are a result of aerobic exercise. This study also suggests that exercise is extremely
beneficial to children, because at young ages there are structures within the
central nervous system that are still developing, and even goes as far to say that
physical activity may even be necessary for healthy neural development. Overall,
the findings in this study are consistent with those from other studies in the same
field. It can be concluded that neural benefits of regular exercise are very similar
to the health benefits that are associated with aerobic fitness
University, R., Brunswick, N., Olson, R. and Mattina, D. with Alderman, B., Dept of Exercise
Science and Sport Studies. (2014). Cognitive Function During Low-Intensity
Walking: A Test of the Treadmill Workstation. Journal of Physical Activity and Health,
11 (4), p.752–758. doi: 10.1123/jpah.2012-0097
The study described in this journal is unique, in that it attempts to look at certain
aspects of cognitive function during exercise. There is little research done on this,
as it is prominently analyzing cognitive function as a whole, and how it is affected
by physical activity. The beginning of this article begins by laying down some
statistics about the USA, including that about 2/3 of the population is overweight
or obese. This can be at least partially attributed to a lack of physical activity.
Sedentary behaviour (increasing as time goes on) is the main reason why Levine
and Miller are strong advocates for the active workstation. There has been some
resistance to implementing the active workstation into offices and classrooms,
because there is a general belief that they will hinder a person’s performance and
overall cognitive functioning; this is what a study of 66 participants aged 20-22
years old using active workstations was looking at. The active workstations
allowed participants to either cycle, walk or stand. Subjects underwent two trials
(control and treatment), while working at a self-selected speed at their active
workstation as they participated in either the Stroop test, Eriksen flanker test,
and/or reading comprehension. There were various tasks done to monitor
cognitive performance, and the results showed that although there was a bit of a
negative influence on fine motor tasks, there should be little to no negative effect
on work productivity or higher-order thinking. This suggests that perhaps the
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active workstations would be best put to use for a few hours of the day, rather
than the entire day. One explanation for the reduced scores on tine motor tasks is
the Reticular-Activating Hypofrontality Model. This suggests that the reason
these scores go down is because the brain needs a certain amount of metabolic
resources to function normally. Certain activities (like exercise) can cause a
reduction in the attentional resources for the brain. Having said that, there was a
substantial increase in energy expenditure due to the active workstations. This
provides strong reason to implement them into classrooms and offices, in addition
to the positive research that has already been found regarding chronic exercise
and cognitive functioning.