Comprehension: Written and
Spoken Language
1
Conceptual and Rule Knowledge

The first three levels of language analysis: the phonological,
syntactic, and lexical and semantic levels.

Conceptual Knowledge: The fourth level of analysis of
language in Miller’s scheme, roughly equivalent to semantic
memory.

Beliefs: The fifth level of analysis of language, according to
Miller, in which the listener’s attitudes and beliefs about the
speaker influence what is comprehended and remembered.

Pragmatics: The aspects of language that are “above and
beyond” the words, so-called extralinguistic factors.
2
Propositional Theory

Proposition – representation of meaning
that can be stored and retrieved from
memory
A combination of concepts and relationships
that express the meaning of a sentence
 Propositions are made up of all the basic
ideas in a sentence and their relationship
 Simpler concept – a proposition is the
briefest unit of language that can be judged
true or false

3
Example

I am going downtown with my sister at
4:00 o’clock.

Made up of 3 basic concepts
I’m going downtown
 I’m going with my sister
 We are going at 4:00 o’clock

4
Advantages of Propositional Theory
1. propositions provide the meaning of a
sentence, and the meaning remains
even if surface structure changes
 2. propositions help us to understand
the relationship between sentences


A proposition can represent the relationship
of concepts in a sentence and between
sentences
5
Evidence for propositional theory

1st prediction of the theory: Sentences
with more underlying propositions will be
more difficult to understand and
remember – overloading working
memory

Working memory holds propositions (not
words) in memory so we can understand
what we have read
6
Kintsch (1974)
Subjects given groups of 5 sentences
 Sentences differed on 2 dimensions

Number of content words 2 - 4
 Number of propositions 1 - 3


Examples:
“The crowded passengers squirmed
uncomfortably
 “The horse stumbled and broke a leg


Later asked to recall them
7
Kintsch (1974)

Results: memory for propositions
decreased as number of propositions
increased. Number of words had no
effect

Conclusion: Prediction upheld
8
Evidence for propositional theory

2nd prediction - If we store propositions in
memory, then concepts within the same
proposition should be stored together
Example: ”the horse stumbled and broke
a leg”
 Hearing the word horse should facilitate
the memory of stumbled more than leg

9
Evidence for propositional theory



Van Dijk and Kintsch (1983)
Subjects given sentences with 2 propositions
Given a word in the sentence and asked if a
target word was in the same sentence.
Reaction time measured under 3 conditions:




1. Word not in the same sentence
2. Word in the sentence; not in the same
proposition
3. Both words in the same proposition
Results reaction time faster in condition 3,
then condition 2
10
Gernsbacher’s Structure building
Framework

Language comprehension is a process
of building propositions – mental
structures

3 Basic components:
Laying a foundation
 mapping information onto the structure
 shifting to new structures

11
Textbook example

“Dave was studying hard for his statistics
midterm.”

“Because the professor had a reputation
for giving difficult exams, the students
knew they’d have to be well prepared.”
12
Predictions of Gernsbacher’s theory

The advantage of 1st mention: the foundation
is formed 1st and generally involves the 1st
idea or character mentioned. Therefore, it
should be the most easily recalled.

The advantage of clause recency: immediately
after hearing the sentence the last or most
recent clause is more easily remembered
13
Support for theory

Gernsbacher and Hargreaves (1988)
 Subjects given a sentence with 2 propositions

“Tina gathered kindling as Lisa set up the tent”

Given a name and asked if it was in the
sentence. Reaction time measured
14
Gernsbacher and Hargreaves
(1988) - Results

If the name was presented immediately after
the sentence, reaction time to Lisa was
fastest.

With a delay of more than 150msec, reaction
time for Tina was fastest

Conclusion: ideas, characters, etc. in the focus
– first mentioned are most important to
structure and memory
15
Reference, Inference, and
Memory
16
Reference
References allude to a concept by using
another word – such as pronouns
 4 types of references

Direct – there is a direct connection
between the word and what it refers to
 Indirect – no direct connection but the
connection can be made by association
 Indirect by characterization
 Other

17
Implication and Inference

Implication: There is an intended
reference in a sentence or utterance, but
it is not mentioned explicitly.

Inference: The process by which the
listener or reader draws connections
between concepts, determines the
referents of words and ideas, and
derives conclusions from a message.
18
Bridging

Bridging : the mental processes of reference,
implication, and inference during language
comprehension.

Authorized implication: Intended or correct.

Unauthorized implication or inference: Not
intended, especially said of inferences drawn
during a conversation.
19
Reading
Reading
20
Gaze Duration Procedures

Gaze Duration: How long the eyes fixate on a
specific word during reading, the principal
measure of online comprehension during
reading.

Some reading basics:



Saccades: quick eye movements, in reading 7 to 9 letter
moves
Fixation: the pause during which the eye is almost
stationary and is taking in visual information.
Average fixation in reading English is 200 to 250msec
21

The pattern of fixations of a good (left panel) and poor (right panel) reader,
showing where the fixations occurred in the sentences and the duration of the
fixations.
22
Gaze Duration Procedures

Immediacy Assumption: Readers try to
interpret each content word of a text as
that word is encountered in the passage.

Eye-Mind Assumption: The eye remains
fixated on a word as long as that word is
being actively processed; the eyes fixate
on a word and reveal something about
the mental time spent on that word.
23
Eye fixations of a college student
reading a scientific passage.
24
Just (1976)

Examined regressive eye movements, that is,
movements back to a portion of text that had
been read earlier.

“The tenant complained to the landlord about
the leaky roof. The next day, he went to the
attic to get his luggage”

“The tenant complained to the landlord about
the leaky roof. The next day he went to the
attic to repair the damage
25
The Structure of Conversations

Conversations are structured by cognitive and
social variables and rules governing the what
and how of our contributions. To begin with,
we take turns. The rules for taking turns:



First, the current speaker is in charge of selecting
the next speaker;
Second, if the first rule isn’t used, then any
participant can become the current speaker;
Third, if no one else takes the turn, the current
speaker may continue to speak or the conversation
can end.
26
The Structure of Conversations

Social Roles and Settings: The social
roles of conversational partners, along
with conversational setting, exert a
strong influence on who participates and
the contributions made by the
participants
27
Conversational Rules
Rules that govern our conversational
interactions with others.
 Relevance
 Quantity
 Quality
 Manner and tone

28
2 Additional Conversational Rules

Attending to your conversational partners
Direct theory
 Second order theory


If you violate any of the conversational
rules, you should explain why

Sometimes violations are intentional to
avoid saying something you don’t want to
say
29
Cooperative Principle

The idea that each participant in a
conversation implicitly assumes that all
speakers are following the rules and that
each contribution to the conversation is a
sincere, appropriate contribution.
30
Empirical Effects in Conversation

Indirect Requests: we ask someone to
do something by an indirect and
presumably more polite statement.

Indirect replies – usually to save face or
you don’t want to hurt someone’s
feelings, but don’t want to lie
31
Egocentric Speech

Do adults plan an utterance so that we provide
the a person with the optimal information they
need to clearly understand what we are saying?

No, adults disregard the principle of optimal
design and speak as egocentrically as children.
Their initial utterances are egocentric, taking into
account only their own perspectives. We
assume that they have the same perspective as
we do.
32