Gray Wolf
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Historical Range
Present Range
Diet
Pack
Mexican Gray Wolf
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Historical Range
Present Range
Diet
Pack
Artic Wolf
• Location
• Diet
• Pack
European Wolves
• Range
– Italy
– Spain/Portugal
– Sweden
• Diet
• Pack
Red Wolf
• Historic Range
• Diet
Canine Parvovirus
• disease of domestic dogs and coyotes
• found in wolves of Wisconsin, Montana, and Minnesota
• exposed wolves may die, show clinical symptoms, or resist
symptoms
• nutritionally stressed or parasitized wolves most likely to
die
• recovered CPV-infected dogs can shed fecal viruses for
months and feces may be infective for up to seven years
• in Minnesota, presence of CPV antibodies have been found
in 87% of wolves, and when CPV antibody levels reach
76% in adult populations, wolf populations are expected to
decline
• Vaccines could be used, but three would be required
Problems With Wolves
• European Wolves
• Depredation of livestock
– Minnesota
– Yellowstone
Coyote-Wolf Interactions
• Coyote and Wolf home ranges overlap
• Coyotes often avoid areas of intense wolf
activity
• Coyotes use outer edges or avoid wolf
territories
Reintroductions
• In 1995 and 1996
66 wolves taken from
southwestern Canada were
reintroduced into
Yellowstone National Park
(YNP).
The Rocky Mountain wolf
population :
The Northwest Montana
recovery area
The Central Idaho
recovery area
The Greater Yellowstone
recovery area
reintroduction...
• the goal was to have 30 evenly
distributed breeding pairs of
wolves throughout the 3 areas for
3 successive years.
• site selection:
• areas with large blocks of public
lands, lots’o wild ungulates, and
minimal livestock...
• blood work (disease and genetic
testing) was done and wolves
were outfitted with mortality
censored radio collars.
•wolves were located 2-4 times per month, those involved with livestock
depredations behavior were watched more closely
•this goal is expected to be met within 3 to 5 years...delisting
• management strategies differed for these groups
because they were classified differently.
• GYA and ID wolves were classified as nonessential
experimental populations. This allows more flexible
management to address local concerns.
• the NWMT wolves are classified as endangered and
are protected under the endangered species act.
In 1986 wolves wandered down from Canada and
established in Glacier National Park...not introduced.
bad dogs
• in Northwestern
Montana control was
only implemented
when livestock
depredations occurred.
• in the experimental
areas wolf control was
exercised when
domestic animals were
attacked
Control techniques
• killing or relocating
• when there is a minimum of 6 breeding pairs, wolves
could be killed after their 1st offense
• effective non-lethal approaches
• intensive monitoring of wolves and livestock (including
providing the pestered rancher with a telemetry receiver)
• harassing wolves with noisemakers like cracker shells.
Outreach
• good idea
• in Mo outreach
programs are
implemented
early...educate, $$
• informal talks to
public and private
institutions, special
interest groups and
rural communities
Minnesota
• Minnesota managed to hang on
to their wolves when none of the
other lower 48 states could.
• MN’s population probably never
dropped below 650, credited to
the Boundary Waters Canoe
Area.
• There was a constant influx of
wolves form Canada to keep the
numbers up.
• The wolf is adaptable...can
switch from bison and elk to
cattle, use roads as convenient
trails, use wheat and corn fields
as cover
Minnesota’s Wolves
Growin’ and expanding into agricultural areas
The recommended population
level was a minimum of
1,250 individuals.
in 1997-1998 the population
was double that sum and was
increasing steadily at 4.5%
per year.
expected to be delisted in 2001
or 2002.
population control will be
considered 5 years after
delisting.
If managed for sustainable yield, MN population could support a
28-47% winter harvest.
Lone wolf dispersal and a possible
sink?
Wolves have long dispersal distances (thousands of km’s)
• –wolves killed on the
periphery of their range
could be quickly
replaced... causing a sink
for the population.
• Some Canadian provinces
keep wolves from
spreading into agricultural
zones this way. They
harvest 4-11% each year
at the range edge.
Mexican Wolf
• The southern most occurring
and most endangered
subspecies of Canis lupus
• In the U.S.-extirpated in the
wild by mid-1900’s
• In Mexico- speculated that less
than 50 breeding pairs existed
there in 1978, unknown
today...probably not.
• In 1977 and 1980 5 wolves
was taken out of Mexico
(from Chihuahua and
Durango) and a captive
breeding program was set up.
Reintroduction
• EIS statement: goal is to
establish at least 100 wild
Mexican wolves
• The site: Blue Range World
Recovery Area. These
wolves were a recovery
priority of 3C, which means
that they were an endangered
subspp. with a high degree of
threat and recovery potential.
• 5 pairs of release candidates
were soft-released in 1988.
Mexican update...
• They are beginning to
function like a population
and less like a series of
separately released
wolves.
• Their prey base is natural,
with 80% of their diet
being elk.
•They are successfully reproducing.
•The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service expects that the goal of
100 wolves will be reached by 2006.
New World Mgt Techniques
• Back in the day
– Bounty programs initiated in 19th
century ended 1965
• 1848 1st bounty in Minnesota was
$3
• 1965 last bounty paid in Minnesota
$35
• trapped, shot from planes and
snowmobiles, dug from dens and
hunted with dogs.
Poison
still used today in parts of Canada
main method of wolf extirpation in
the past
illegal in Minn
New World Mgt. Cont.
• Poison cont.
– animal carcasses were
slated with strychnine were
left out for wolves and other
animals also died because
of this.
wolves had been exterminated
in lower 48 states with the
exception of a few hundred
in extreme NE Minn and
were finally protected by
the in 1973 by the
Endangered Species Act of
1973.
Yellowstone-Idaho introduction
• wolves designated as non-essential instead of
endangered because they were introduced.
• this was an experimental act under the Endangered
Species Act
• allows federal, state and tribal agencies and
private citizens more flexibility in managing these
populations
– wolves that prey on livestock will be removed or destroyed
– Rancher may kill wolves that they catch depredating livestock on
private lands
– Ranchers may also be issued a permit to do the same on public
lands
Montana
• Wolf control only when livestock or other types of
domestic animals such as dogs were attacked.
– Control
• Intensive monitoring of wolves and livestock (telemetry)
• adversive conditioning (cracker shells, capturing, radio
collaring and releasing)
• controlling measures continued until livestock depredation
ceased
• wolves that repeatedly depredated livestock were killed
• aversive conditioning: test conducted at Flying D ranch in
Bozeman, MT.
• 4 problem wolves were penned, allowed to acclimate for a few
months, and outfitted with shock collars. Wolves were shocked
if they came within 1 meter of a calf placed in the pen.
• one wolf ventured too close, got zapped, and cowered for
hours...the others took notice and avoided the calf.
• the calf continued to live with the wolves for 10 days
• interactions between wolf and calf varied: there was napping,
pacing (by both parties), and even calf in pursuit of wolf
• results: no more depredations have been documented by these
reformed wolves
Montana Cont.
• Compensation
– private program compensated ranchers full
market value for confirmed and 50% for
probable wolf kills of livestock and livestock
guarding animals
– all mortalities were looked into by the USFWS
– after investigations were complete : skulls,
carcasses were used for educational and
scientific purposes.
Montana Cont
• 1996-1997 winter
– dramatic reduction of
white-tailed deer
throughout NW Mont
– result: record high livestock
losses by wolves
– represented nearly 50% of
all confirmed livestock
depredation and lethal wolf
control on NWMont since
1987.
Distribution and dispersal
– NW Mont
• slower than expected
• removal of problem wolves and prey declines in
1997 winter
– Central Idaho and GYA
• expanded greatly
• protected area and they stayed within boundaries
Depredation of Livestock
• low compared to other causes of livestock
mortality, but controversial
• private compensation fund by Defenders of
Wildlife
• many of the problem wolves that depredate
livestock end up doing it again
– ends up costing more money
– livestock losses could be significantly reduces by
killing the problem wolves instead of relocating.
– study showed that 25 of 28 or 89% of relocated
wolves wolves either died or attached livestock again
Depredation Cont
• In GYA the wolves were
predicted to kill 19 cattle
and 68 sheep annually
– from 1995-1998 only killed
8 cattle, 84 cheep,and 4
dogs (below what
predicted)
– study showed that 13
wolves depredated and were
caught and returned to park
• of 13, only 2 or 15% did
not leave park and kill
again
• (of the 13 wolves,one wolf
was responsible for killing
56 sheep)
Depredation Cont.
• Minnesota in 1998 paid out:
– $50,000 compensation payments
– $255,000 for control costs
– $301,413 for a total cost
– predicted for 2005
• $75,002-$182,074 for compensation payments
• $245,060-$512,610 for control costs
• $320,062-$694,684 for total cost
Depredation Cont
• livestock producers
exaggerate the threat that
wolves have on livestock
• many losses cannot be
confirmed
– many ranchers don’t
check livestock regularly
in summer
– agencies need a
confirmation process so
they are not abused by
ranchers
– agencies require
confirmation and report
losses
– sometimes this can be
hard to prove
Depredation Cont
• to date, livestock losses have been low and have
occurred on private lands
• control of problem wolves by lethal means rather
than relocating them, should result in lower costs,
quicker resolution of problems, and fewer
livestock losses
• Effective control may translate into increased
tolerance of nondepradating wolves by livestock
producers on private and public lands
What are are options?
• After delisting and Minn DNR regains
management authority.
– Fed govt gain control as before
– Controllers to do preventive control by capturing
wolves in areas of chronic depredation before livestock
losses occur.
– DNR could capture and kill wolves in areas of chronic
losses or in broad areas where wolves are problems
• Expensive and time consuming
Options Cont?
• Involve the public (legal
shooting of wolves by
issuing licenses to certain
parts of the state) (zone 5)
– Let hunting take place near
areas that are highly
depredated by wolves.
– Deliberate hunting is very
difficult and most killing of
wolves are killed by deer
hunters who just happen to see
a wolf.
– Trapping of wolves could also
be used but it depends a lot on
the fur prices which fluctuates
a lot.
• Most skilled trappers of the
past are not around
Options Cont.
• Could allow livestock owners to shoot and
trap wolves on their property with or
without restrictions. (this could result in
innocent wolves being killed and it also
could help landowners to feel better about
being able to kill the wolves)
Options Cont
• Problems?
– Human populations have
become more urbanized and
animal rights activists are
strengthening (hunting and
trapping are decline)
– Proven methods of wolf
control are less acceptable
– Increased human and wolf
conflicts are on the rise and
there is little agreement on
what to do with them.
Wolves in Europe and the Middle
East: Past Distribution
Wolves in Europe and Middle
East: Present Distribution
History of Wolves in Europe
• wolves were persecuted in
most of Western Europe,
with viable populations
remaining only in Spain,
Portugal, Italy, and Russia
• Viewed as “man-eaters”
and seen as a threat to
human livelihood
Fairytales and Myths
• many of the fairytales we
know today originated in
Europe (Little Red Riding
Hood etc...)
• the myth of werewolf was
also born here
• since very little people have
actually been attacked by
wolves, the origins of the tales
are a mystery
Wrongful Persecution?
• in Europe, many believe that the man
eaters in stories were actually man’s best
friend, the dog
• the Roman Empire had domesticated a
variety of large dogs
• after it’s demise, many dogs were forced
to form packs and roam the countryside
in search of food
• these starving dogs were said to have
dug up bodies of the dead and attack and
kill people
• interestingly, these occurrences correlate
well with the emergence of wolf fairy
tales
The hunt is on...
• in the Middle Ages, built
pits and baited
• 1600’s-1800’s...
government mandated
“town hunts” required
everyone 16 and up to
participate (sometimes up
to 20,000 people)
• Bounties were
implemented (more
money for females and
pregnant females)
Still hunting...
• literature about hunting
wolves dates back to the
Middle Ages
• hunting guides shared the
tricks of the trade: how to
poison, track, anti “stinky”
shoes (for horses too!), the
“wolf iron” etc....
• 1699- survival guide
published in Germany...
knowledge required to
survive includes how to
kill a wolf
Wolves in Europe Now
• Wolves have dispersed back into many
European countries, including Germany,
Poland, Sweden, Greece, and France to
name a few.
• The international body for the World Wide
Fund for nature estimates total numbers in
Europe to be 15,500 - 18,000.
• Expansion of wolves appears linked to
protection by law, significant habitat
improvement, reduced hunting effort, and
increased wild ungulate populations
• Should still be considered endangered
species due to population fragmentation
and low genetic variability
• Human attitude towards wolves is probably
one of the most important factors
determining wolf distribution
Problems with wolves in Europe now...
• Habitat fragmentation is definitely
a problem
• Depredation of livestock
– especially sheep, many
countries
allow flocks to
roam hillsides all
summer without checking on them
– not very common when abundant
ungulates are present
• Foraging in garbage dumps near
cities (like in Central Italy- get 6070 % of food there)
• People are still REALLY scared of
wolves
• Poaching- an estimated 15-20 % of
Italy’s wolf population is illegally
killed each year
Getting over the fear
• The big objective for wildlife
managers in Germany is to
educate the public on wolves,
hoping to alleviate the deeply
rooted fear
• Hope to reach the younger
generations by giving
presentations at schools
• Hold meetings to educate the
public
• Pass out informative
pamphlets at different
gathering events
• Sponsor the production of
educative t.v. shows
Decreasing depredation...
• Encourage ranchers to:
– use breeds of sheep that tend to
disperse rather than flock
– use livestock guarding dogs
– provide nocturnal housing for
livestock
– get a shepherd to watch over the
livestock
– discontinue the practice of free-range
grazing
• Offer compensation to ranchers
who lose livestock
• Norway wants to cull
approximately 20 wolves to
please farmers
Habitat fragmentation
• Each country should
designate a zoning system of
areas and connect them via
corridors
• Each area should be managed
for wolves in ways
appropriate to local
ecological and economic
conditions
• If each country would
connect their corridors, this
would allow dispersal to
occur, providing the much
needed genetic diversity
Wolves in Arabia
• the Arabian wolf subspecies
found in deserts of the
Arabian Peninsula,Syria,
Jordan, and Israel
• nomadic shepherds use this
area to graze their livestock,
and consider the wolf to be a
major predator of goats and
sheep
• systematic shooting and
trapping has nearly
eliminated it from most of the
Middle East except Israel
where harassing or killing
wolves is prohibited
Arabian Wolves....
• In the Negev Desert, they
feed mostly on trash, carrion,
and agricultural products,
only occasionally will they
hunt, mostly scavengers
• humans are major source of
mortality (50 – 80 %)
• form very small packs,
allowing for them to move
safely in populated areas
• have small home range due to
clumped distribution of food
Asian Wolves
• there also wolves in
Asia, but primary
sources of information
were scarce