Article 1
Wolf Relocation Controversy
The three wolves were laid out on blankets - a young 105-lb. animal with a sleek black coat,
and a pair of slightly smaller, grey-flecked ones, still unconscious after being tranquillized
earlier in the day. An assortment of Canadian veterinarians, American government biologists
and volunteers hovered over the wolves, taking blood and hair samples, administering vaccines,
attaching ear tags and implanting microchips to help keep track of the animals. The wolves
being examined in the small northern B.C. city of Fort St. John were among the last of 38
animals captured in the area last month and taken in two shipments, on Jan. 22 and Jan. 26, to
the United States. There, they were destined for central Idaho and Wyoming's Yellowstone
National Park as part of a U.S. government effort to re-establish wolves in America's northern
Rocky Mountains.
The program to re-establish wolves in the Rocky Mountains has its supporters and its
opponents. To some supporters of the relocation effort, the wolf represents wilderness and
nature the way it is meant to be; to ranchers worried about their livestock, it is simply the
predator. The supporters see the program as a righting of past wrongs.
For years, some states offered money called a bounty for dead wolves and federal officials
joined in the eradication effort. By the 1930s, wolves had virtually disappeared in all but one
(Minnesota) of the lower 48 U.S. states.
Now, the process has been reversed. Wolves were included in federal endangered species
legislation in 1973 (see Article 2). And for the past decade, wolves have been drifting down
from southern Alberta into northern Montana, establishing seven packs there on their own. In
1995, the U.S. government began helping Mother Nature along, transplanting 29 wolves from
Alberta to Yellowstone and to central Idaho in the first stage of a scheduled three-to-five-year
program. The goal is to establish self-sustaining populations, with about 10 packs - or roughly
100 animals - in each area. "We're trying to get wolf numbers to the point where they're off the
Endangered Species Act," says Fritts. "At that point, we cross the finish line."
The program has drawn some fire in Canada, where wildlife groups protest that not enough is
being done to protect Canadian wolves. And one Vancouver-based group calling itself Friends
of the Wolf offered $5,000 to anyone who frees the wolves captured in Fort St. John. (No one
seems to have tried.) But the program's fiercest critics are in Idaho, Wyoming and Montana,
north of Yellowstone Park, where some of last year's 29 transplants have wandered.
Ranchers worry that wolves will harass their livestock - they point to one case of a wolf pack
from the transplanted group killing a hunting dog, and another where a single wolf probably
killed at least two sheep. Hunters complain that wolves will deplete big game animals. Some
critics charge that small children and domestic pets might even be in danger. Jason Campbell,
natural resource co-ordinator for the Montana Stockgrowers Association in Helena, says
ranchers in northern parts of the state are more tolerant of wolves moving in on their own. "But
when a federal agency is bringing them in and basically sticking them in your backyard,"
Campbell says, "that gets a little bit tough for our people to understand. Private property rights
are a huge issue here."
Fritts says he is unaware of any documented case of a healthy wolf killing a human being in
North America. "If wolves were inclined to bother people," he says, "we would know about it.
There's just too much evidence that they don't." And although wolves do kill some livestock, he
maintains, they kill fewer livestock than disease kills and they kill fewer than other predators
like coyotes, bears and mountain lions. Region-wide, he insists, the wolves "will not add to the
death of livestock to any significant degree."
There was a time when relocation efforts worked the other way across the Canada-U.S. border.
In 1917, after overhunting, bad weather and large forest fires had severely depopulated elk from
the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains in Alberta, elk were shipped from Yellowstone Park
to Banff and Waterton Lakes National parks and later to Jasper National Park, as well.
Meanwhile, bighorn sheep have on several occasions been transplanted from Alberta and
British Columbia to Washington, Oregon and other states. And in a program independent of the
wolf recovery effort, 30 elk are being transferred from Alberta's Elk Island National Park to
Kentucky this month.
Efforts to relocate predators like wolves, though, have been much more divisive. One man has
already been convicted of shooting one of last year's transplants in Montana. The relocated
wolves are under a special, experimental category in endangered species legislation that allows
landowners to kill wolves - but only if they catch the predators in the act of attacking their
livestock.
The second round of wolves were taken from wilderness areas some 160 km north and west of
Fort St. John. Biologists with B.C. Environment radio-collared some of the wolves in
November and December, in part to ease the task of locating them. And beginning on Jan. 16,
two airplane pilots from Fairbanks, Alaska, began tracking wolf packs. The animals travel in
family units - a breeding pair and several years' worth of offspring. When the pilots spotted a
pack, they called in two helicopters, each with an Alaska Fish and Game biologist armed with
tranquillizer darts on board.
It took about three to eight minutes for the wolves to fall after they had been darted, says Ken
Taylor, one of the darters and the deputy director of Alaska Fish and Game's wildlife
conservation division. The airplane pilots kept track of those wolves while the helicopters
pursued more. Then the choppers landed and the darters waded through snow, in some cases
armpit deep, to recover the animals.
The planes and helicopters spent seven days in the sky, airlifting wolves each evening back to
Fort St. John. There, they were tagged and tested and, laboratory blood results showed, found to
be free of major diseases like rabies and brucellosis. Then the wolves were placed in 12-footby-six-foot chain-link kennels draped with old bedspreads - donated by a local motel - to
minimize distractions while they awaited transport.
Of the 37 wolves flown to the United States, 20 were sent to Idaho where they were released
directly into the wild in the hopes that they will find mates and form their own packs. The other
17 - mostly members of five existing family packs - are being held in pens in Yellowstone for
up to 10 weeks to become acclimated to their new environment. Then they, too, will be released
into a wilderness where wolves were once plentiful - there to remain the objects of both
admiration and animosity.
Maclean's February 12, 1996
http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/wolf-relocation-controversy/
Article 2
The Endangered Species Act
The Endangered Species Act of 1973 is one of the few dozens of United States environmental laws passed in the
1970s. Signed into law by President Richard Nixon on December 28, 1973, it was designed to protect
critically imperiled species from extinction. The Act is administered by two federal agencies, the United States Fish
and Wildlife Service (FWS) and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). NOAA handles
marine species, and the FWS has responsibility over freshwater fish and all other species. Species that occur in
both habitats (e.g. sea turtles and Atlantic sturgeon) are jointly managed.
Listing status
Listing status and its abbreviations used in Federal Register and by federal agencies like U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service:

E = endangered - any species which is in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its
range other than a species of the Class Insecta determined by the Secretary to constitute a pest.

T = threatened - any species which is likely to become an endangered species within the foreseeable future
throughout all or a significant portion of its range.
The ESA's primary goal is to prevent the extinction of imperiled plant and animal life, and secondly, to recover
and maintain those populations by removing or lessening threats to their survival.
Petition and listing
To be considered for listing, the species must meet one of five criteria:
1. There is the present or threatened destruction, modification, or curtailment of its habitat or range.
2. An over utilization for commercial, recreational, scientific, or educational purposes.
3. The species is declining due to disease or predation.
4. There is an inadequacy of existing regulatory mechanisms.
5. There are other natural or manmade factors affecting its continued existence.
Critical habitat
The law requires the identification and protection of all lands, water and air necessary to recover endangered
species. To determine what exactly is critical habitat, the needs of open space for individual and population
growth, food, water, light or other nutritional requirements, breeding sites, seed germination and dispersal
needs, and lack of disturbances are considered.
Delisting
To delist species, several factors are considered: the threats are eliminated or controlled, population size and
growth, and the stability of habitat quality and quantity.
There is also "downlisting" of a species where some of the threats have been controlled and the population has
met recovery objectives, then the species can be reclassified to "threatened" from "endangered."
Two examples of animal species recently delisted are: the Virginia northern flying squirrel (subspecies) on
August, 2008, which had been listed since 1985, and the gray wolf (Northern Rocky Mountain DPS). On April
15, 2011, President Obama signed the Department of Defense and Full-Year Appropriations Act of 2011 which
identified the Northern Rocky Mountain population of gray wolf (Canis lupus) as a distinct population segment
(DPS) and to revise the List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife by removing most of the gray wolves in the
DPS.
Positive effects
As of September 2012, fifty-six species have been delisted; twenty-eight due to recovery, ten due to extinction
(seven of which are believed to have been extinct prior to being listed), ten due to changes in taxonomic
classification practices, six due to discovery of new populations, one due to an error in the listing rule, and one
due to an amendment to the Endangered Species Act specifically requiring the species delisting. Twenty-five
others have been down listed from "endangered" to "threatened" status.
As of October 28, 2012, there are 2,052 species on the threatened and endangered lists.
Species which increased in population size since being placed on the endangered list include:

Bald eagle (increased from 417 to 11,040 pairs between 1963 and 2007); removed from list 2007

Whooping crane (increased from 54 to 436 birds between 1967 and 2003)

Kirtland's warbler (increased from 210 to 1,415 pairs between 1971 and 2005)

Peregrine falcon (increased from 324 to 1,700 pairs between 1975 and 2000); removed from list

Gray wolf (populations increased dramatically in the Northern Rockies, Southwest, and Great Lakes)

Gray whale (increased from 13,095 to 26,635 whales between 1968 and 1998); removed from list (Debated
because whaling was banned before the ESA was set in place and that the ESA had nothing to do with the
natural population increase since the cease of massive whaling [excluding Native American tribal whaling])

Grizzly bear (increased from about 271 to over 580 bears in the Yellowstone area between 1975 and 2005);
removed from list March 22, 2007

California’s southern sea otter (increased from 1,789 in 1976 to 2,735 in 2005)

San Clemente Indian paintbrush (increased from 500 plants in 1979 to more than 3,500 in 1997)

Red wolf (increased from 17 in 1980 to 257 in 2003)

Florida's Key deer (increased from 200 in 1971 to 750 in 2001)

Hawaiian goose (increased from 400 birds in 1980 to 1,275 in 2003)

Virginia big-eared bat (increased from 3,500 in 1979 to 18,442 in 2004)

Black-footed ferret (increased from 18 in 1986 to 600 in 2006)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endangered_Species_Act
Article 3
Wolf reintroduction
Wolf reintroduction involves the reestablishment of a population of wolves in
areas where they have been removed. Wolf reintroduction is only considered
where large tracts of suitable wilderness still exist and where certain prey
species are abundant enough to support a wolf population.
Yellowstone National Park and Central Idaho
Figure 1 A reintroduced gray wolf in
Yellowstone National Park.
Grey wolf packs were reintroduced to Yellowstone National Park and Idaho
starting in 1995. The subspecies native to the Yellowstone area prior to local
extinction was the Northern Rocky Mountains wolf (Canis lupus irremotus)
however the species that was reintroduced was the Mackenzie Valley wolf
(Canis lupus occidentalis).
Local industry and environmental groups battled for decades over the
Yellowstone and Idaho wolf reintroduction effort. The idea of wolf
reintroduction was first brought to Congress in 1966 by biologists who were
concerned with the critically high elk populations in Yellowstone and the
ecological damages to the land from excessively large herds of elk. Officially,
1926 was the year that the last wolves were killed within Yellowstone’s
boundaries. When the wolves were eradicated and hunting of wolves
eliminated, the elk population boomed. Over the succeeding decades, elk
populations grew so large that they unbalanced the local ecosystem. The
number of elk and other large prey animals increased to the point that they
gathered in large herds along valley bottoms and meadows overgrazing newgrowth vegetation. Because of overgrazing, deciduous woody plant species
such as upland aspen and riparian cottonwood became seriously diminished.
Figure 2 Map showing wolf packs in
So, because the predators, the wolves, had been removed from the
Yellowstone-Idaho ecosystem, the ecosystem changed. This change affected Yellowstone National Park as of 2002.
other species as well. Coyotes filled in the niche left by wolves, but couldn't
control the large elk populations. Booming coyote numbers, furthermore, also had a negative effect on other
species, particularly the red fox, pronghorn, and domestic sheep. Ranchers, though, remained steadfastly opposed
to reintroducing wolves, citing the hardships that would ensue with the potential loss of livestock caused by wolves.
The government, which was charged with creating, implementing, and enforcing a compromise, struggled for over
two decades to find middle ground. A wolf recovery team was appointed in 1974, and the first official recovery plan
was released for public comment in 1982. General public apprehension regarding wolf recovery forced the U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service to revise their plan to implement more control for local and state governments, so a second
recovery plan was released for public comment in 1985. That same year, a poll conducted at Yellowstone National
Park showed that 74% of visitors thought wolves would improve the park, while 60% favored reintroducing them.
The preparation of an environmental impact statement, the last critical step before reintroduction could be greenlighted, was halted when Congress insisted that further research be done
before an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) was to be funded.
In 1987, in an effort to shift the burden of financial responsibility from ranchers
to those in favor of wolf reintroduction, Defenders of Wildlife set up a “wolf
compensation fund” that would use donations to pay ranchers market value for
any livestock that was lost to wolf predation. That same year, a final recovery
plan was released and was finalized in May 1994. It included a clause that
Figure 3 People look on as the grey wolves
specified that all wolves reintroduced to the recovery zones would be
are trucked through Roosevelt Arch,
classified under the “experimental, non-essential” provision of the ESA. The
Yellowstone National Park, January 1995.
plan stipulated that each of the three recovery areas must have ten breeding
pairs of wolves successfully rearing two or more pups for three consecutive
years before the minimum recovery goals would be reached.
Adolescent members from packs of Mackenzie Valley wolves in Alberta, Canada were tranquilized and carted down
to the recovery zones, but a last minute court order delayed the planned releases. The Wyoming Farm Bureau filed
suit to prevent the release because the ranchers were afraid that the wolves would destroy their livestock but the
suit was thrown out of court. After spending an additional 36 hours in transport cages in Idaho and in their holding
pens in Yellowstone, the wolves were finally released. Yellowstone’s wolves stayed in acclimation pens for two more
months before being released into the wild. Idaho’s wolves were given an
immediate release. A total of 66 wolves were released to the two areas in
this manner in January 1995 and January 1996.
2005 estimates of wolf populations in the two recovery zones reflect the
success the species has had in both areas:


Greater Yellowstone Area: 325
Central Idaho: 565
Figure 4 Wolf in an acclimation pen,
These numbers, added with the estimated number of wolves in
Yellowstone National Park.
northwestern Montana (130), puts the total number of wolves in the
Northern Rocky Mountains recovery area at over 1000 individuals. This
includes approximately 134 packs (two or more wolves traveling together) and 71 breeding pairs (male and female
that successfully rear a litter of at least two).
Current wolf population statistics can be found at http://www.fws.gov/mountain-prairie/species/mammals/wolf/
Over the decades since wolves have been present in the region, there have been hundreds of confirmed incidents
of livestock predation, though such predation represents a very small proportion of a wolf’s diet. While the majority
of wolves ignore livestock entirely, a few wolves or wolf packs will become chronic livestock hunters, and most of
these have been killed to protect livestock. Since the year Defenders of Wildlife implemented their compensation
fund, they have allocated over $1,400,000 to private owners for proven and probable livestock depredation by
wolves.
Opponents argue that the Yellowstone reintroductions were unnecessary, as American wolves were never in danger
of biological extinction since wolves still persisted in Canada.
Opponents have also stated that wolves are of little commercial benefit, as cost estimates on wolf recovery are from
$200,000 to $1 million per wolf. But the Lamar Valley is one of the best places in the world to observe wolves, and
tourism based on wolves is booming. The growing wolf-viewing outfitting trend contrasts with declines for big game
hunters.
In 2006, the Yellowstone elk herd shrunk to 50% since the mid-1990s. Researchers documented that most of the elk
that fell prey to wolves were very old, diseased, or very young. Outside the park, numerous elk hunting outfitters
have closed.
The reintroduction of wolves, a predator, has had important impacts on biodiversity within Yellowstone National
Park. Through heavy predation of elk populations, wolf reintroduction has coincided with an increase of new-growth
vegetation among certain plants, such as aspen and willow trees, which elk previously grazed upon at unsustainable
levels.
Presence of wolves has even changed behavioral patterns of other animals. Elk have quit venturing into deeper
thickets, out of fear of being attacked by wolves in an area of such low visibility. Elk have also begun avoiding open
areas such as valley bottoms and open meadows where, prior to wolf introduction, the elk grazed collectively and
avoided predation from mountain lions and bears.
In addition to the restoration of vegetation several important species such as the beaver (which also became extinct
in the park) and red fox have also recovered, probably due to the wolves keeping coyote populations under control.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolf_reintroduction
Article 4
Wolf Restoration
History
In the 1800s, westward expansion brought
settlers and their livestock into direct
contact with native predator and prey
species. Much of the wolves' prey base was
destroyed as agriculture flourished. With
the prey base removed, wolves began to
prey on domestic stock, which resulted in
humans eliminating wolves from most of
their historical range. Predator control,
including poisoning, was practiced here in
the late 1800s and early 1900s. Other
predators such as bears, cougars, and coyotes were also killed to protect livestock and "more desirable" wildlife species,
such as deer and elk.
The gray wolf was present in Yellowstone when the park was established in 1872. Today, it is difficult for
many people to understand why early park managers would have participated in the extermination of wolves.
After all, the Yellowstone National Park Act of 1872 stated that the Secretary of the Interior "shall provide
against the wanton destruction of the fish and game found within said Park." But this was an era before people,
including many biologists, understood the concepts of ecosystem and the interconnectedness of species. At the
time, the wolves' habit of killing prey species was considered "wanton destruction" of the animals. Between
1914 and 1926, at least 136 wolves were killed in the park; by the 1940s, wolf packs were rarely reported. By
the mid-1900s, wolves had been almost entirely eliminated from the 48 states.
An intensive survey in the 1970s found no evidence of a wolf population in Yellowstone, although an
occasional wolf probably wandered into the area. During the 1980s, wolves began to reestablish breeding packs
in northwestern Montana; 50–60 wolves inhabited Montana in 1994.
In the 1960s and 1970s, national awareness of environmental issues and consequences led to the passage of
many laws designed to correct the mistakes of the past and help
prevent similar mistakes in the future. One such law was the
Endangered Species Act, passed in 1973 (See Article 2). The
US Fish and Wildlife Service is required by this law to restore
endangered species that have been eliminated, if possible. By
1978, all wolf subspecies were on the federal list of endangered
species for the lower 48 states except Minnesota. (National Park
Service policy also calls for restoration of native species where
possible.)
Restoration Proposed
National Park Service policy calls for restoring native species when: (a) sufficient habitat exists to support a
self-perpetuating population, (b) management can prevent serious threats to outside interests, (c) the restored
subspecies most nearly resembles the locally extinct subspecies, and (d) local extinction resulted from human
activities.
The US Fish and Wildlife Service 1987 Northern Rocky Mountain Wolf Recovery Plan proposed reintroduction
of an "experimental population" of wolves into Yellowstone. An experimental population, under section 10(j) of
the Endangered Species Act, is considered nonessential and allows more management flexibility. Most
scientists believed that wolves would not greatly reduce populations of mule deer, pronghorns, bighorn sheep,
white-tailed deer, or bison; they might have minor effects on grizzly bears and cougars; and their presence
might cause the decline of coyotes and increase of red foxes.
Staff from Yellowstone, the US Fish and Wildlife Service, and participating states prepared for wolf restoration
to the park and central Idaho. The US Fish and Wildlife Service prepared special regulations outlining how
wolves would be managed as an experimental population.
Park staff completed site planning and archeological and sensitive plant surveys for the release sites. Each site
was approximately one acre enclosed with 9-gauge chain-link fence in 10 x 10 foot panels. The fences had a
two-foot overhang and a four-foot skirt at the bottom to discourage climbing over or digging under the
enclosure. Each pen had a small holding area attached to allow a wolf to be separated from the group if
necessary (i.e., for medical treatment). Plywood boxes provided shelter if the wolves wanted isolation from
each other.
So far, data suggests wolves are contributing to decreased numbers of elk calves surviving to adulthood and
decreased survival of adult elk. Wolves may also be affecting where and how elk use the habitat. Some of these
effects were predictable, but were based on research in relatively simple systems of one to two predator and
prey species. Such is not the case in Yellowstone, where four other large predators (black and grizzly bears,
coyotes, cougars) prey on elk—and people hunt the elk outside the park. Thus, interactions of wolves with elk
and other ungulates has created a new degree of complexity that makes it difficult to project long-term
population trends.
The effect of wolf recovery on the dynamics of northern Yellowstone elk cannot be generalized to other elk
populations in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. The effects depend on a complex of factors including elk
densities, abundance of other predators, presence of alternative ungulate prey, winter severity, and—outside the
park—land ownership, human harvest, livestock depredations, and human-caused wolf deaths. A coalition of
natural resource professionals and scientists representing federal and state agencies, conservation organizations
and foundations, academia, and land owners are collaborating on a comparative research program involving
three additional wolf-ungulate systems in the western portion of the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. Results to
date indicate the effects of wolf predation on elk population dynamics range from substantial to quite modest.
Relocation and Release
In late 1994 and early 1995, and again in 1996, US Fish and Wildlife
Service and Canadian wildlife biologists captured wolves in Canada
and relocated and released them in both Yellowstone and central Idaho.
In mid-January 1995, 14 wolves were temporarily penned in
Yellowstone; the first eight wolves on January 12 and the second six on
January 19, 1995. Wolves from one social group were together in each
release pen. On January 23, 1996, 11 more wolves were brought to
Yellowstone for the second year of wolf restoration. Four days later
they were joined by another six wolves. The wolves ranged from 72 to
130 pounds in size and from approximately nine months to five years in
age. They included wolves known to have fed on bison. Groups included breeding adults and younger wolves one to two
years old.
Each wolf was radio-collared as it was captured in Canada. While temporarily penned, the wolves experienced
minimal human contact. Approximately twice a week, they were fed elk, deer, moose, or bison that had died in
and around the park. They were guarded by law enforcement rangers who minimized how much wolves saw of
humans. The pen sites and surrounding areas were closed to visitation and marked to prevent unauthorized
entry. Biologists checked on the welfare of wolves twice each week, using telemetry or visual observation while
placing food in the pens. Although five years of reintroductions were predicted, no transplants occurred after
1996 because of the early success of the reintroductions.
Some people expressed concern about wolves becoming habituated to humans while in captivity. However,
wolves typically avoid human contact, and they seldom develop habituated behaviors such as scavenging in
garbage. Captivity was also a negative experience for them and reinforced their dislike of humans.
Results of the Restoration
Preliminary data from studies indicate that wolf recovery will likely lead to greater biodiversity throughout the
Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. Wolves prey primarily on elk and these carcasses have provided food to a
wide variety of other animals, especially scavenging species. They are increasingly preying on bison, especially
in late winter. Grizzly bears have usurped wolf kills almost at will, contrary to predictions and observations
from other areas where the two species occur. Wolf kills, then, provide an important resource for bears in low
food years. Aggression toward coyotes initially decreased the number of coyotes inside wolf territories, which
may have benefited other smaller predators, rodents, and birds of prey.
Legal Status of a Recovered Population
Wolves are now managed by the appropriate state, tribal, or federal agencies; management in national parks and national
wildlife refuges continue to be guided by existing authorizing and management legislation and regulations.
http://www.nps.gov/yell/naturescience/wolfrest.htm
Article 5
Wolf FAQs
How many species of wolves are there in the world? There are two universally recognized species of wolves
in the world: the gray wolf (Canis lupus) and the red wolf (Canis rufus). Two other mbbembers of the canine family
are considered to be wolves by some researchers and other species by other researchers. The use of molecular
genetic research on wolves is suggesting that there may be two more species of wolf in the world. Some scientists
question whether the Ethiopian or Abyssinian wolf (Canis simensis) is a true wolf or a jackal. Other researchers have
presented strong evidence that the eastern timber wolf (Canis lupus lycaon), may be a distinct species, the eastern
wolf (Canis lycaon). Due to the complex nature of studying wolves using molecular genetics to distinguish species,
the process takes a great amount of time to reach solid conclusions.
What are the subspecies (races) of the gray wolf? The gray wolf, Canis lupus, lives in the northern latitudes
around the world. There are five subspecies, or races, of the gray wolf in North America and seven to 12 in Eurasia.
The currently recognized subspecies in North America are:
 Canis lupus baileyi – the Mexican wolf or lobo.
 Canis lupus nubilus – the Great Plains or buffalo wolf.
 Canis lupus occidentalis – the , Rocky Mountain or MacKenzie Valley wolf.
 Canis lupus lycaon – the eastern timber wolf. Some scientists maintain this wolf is a separate species, Canis
lycaon.
 Canis lupus arctos- the arctic wolf.
Subspecies are often difficult to distinguish from one another. This is because wolves are so mobile and travel such
great distances. They interbreed where their ranges overlap so that their populations tend to blend together rather
than form distinctive boundaries. The different traits we see in subspecies are likely the result of geographic range,
available habitat, and prey base. But one wolf is, in reality, like any other wolf in terms of natural history and
behavior. There are far more commonalities among wolves than differences. All species and subspecies of wolves are
social animals that live and hunt in families called packs, although adult wolves can and do survive alone. Most
wolves hold territories, and all communicate through body language, vocalization and scent marking.
What are the main differences between red wolves and gray wolves? Red wolves are larger than coyotes
and smaller than gray wolves. They are buff-colored or brown with some black along their backs. The backs of their
ears, head and legs are often tinged with a reddish color. Their legs are long, and they have tall, offset ears. The red
wolf diet consists mainly of white-tailed deer and small mammals such as marsh rabbits, raccoons and nutria.
What is a wolf pack? A wolf pack is a cohesive family unit consisting of the adult parents and their offspring of
the current year and perhaps the previous year and sometimes two years or more. Wolf parents used to be referred
to as the alpha male and alpha female or the alpha pair. These terms have been replaced by “breeding male,”
“breeding female,” and “breeding pair,” or simply “parents.” The adult parents are usually unrelated, and other
unrelated wolves may sometimes join the pack.
How many wolves are in a pack? Pack size is highly variable and fluid because of the birth of pups, dispersal,
and mortality. Prey availability and size are also factors. Where prey animals are smaller, packs are often small.
Where prey is large, the packs may be larger. For example, in Alaska and northwestern Canada some packs
reportedly have over 20 members. One pack (Druid Peak pack) in Yellowstone National Park once swelled to over 30
members, but this is highly unusual and not necessarily an advantage. More pack members means more food must
be obtained. Wolf packs are generally largest in late autumn when the nearly-grown pups are strong enough to hunt
with the adults. Over the winter months, some wolves may disperse to find mates and territories of their own. Others
die, and by spring, before the arrival of a new crop of pups, the pack size has often diminished.
Red wolf packs are generally smaller than gray wolf packs and usually have 2 to 8 members, but a pack of 12 has
been observed in the wild.
What is the size of a wolf pack territory? In most regions where wolves live, each wolf pack has its own
territory, an area in which it lives, hunts and raises its offspring and which it actively defends against other canids
(dog-like animals) including other wolves. Exceptions are nomadic wolves whose prey is migratory such as the
tundra wolves that follow the caribou herds on their annual treks over huge distances. Territory size is highly
variable and depends on a number of factors such as prey abundance, the nature of the terrain, climate and the
presence of other predators including other wolf packs. Gray wolf territories in the lower 48 states may be less than
100 square miles while territories in Alaska and Canada can range from about 300 to 1,000 square miles or more.
Red wolf territories in northeastern North Carolina vary in size, but most are estimated to range between 38 to 87
square miles.
When do wolves breed? Wolves breed once a year in late winter or early spring depending on where they live.
For example, gray wolves in the Western Great Lakes region breed in February to March, while gray wolves in the
arctic may breed a few weeks later – in March to April.
Red wolves usually breed in late January or early February.
What is the gestation (pregnancy) period of a wolf? The gestation period (length of pregnancy) of gray and
red wolves is usually around 63 days.
How many pups are born in a pack each year? A breeding pair produces one litter of pups each spring, but in
areas of high prey abundance more than one female in a pack may give birth. An average litter size for gray and red
wolves is 4 to 6, but sometimes fewer pups are born and sometimes more. Several or all may die if food is not readily
available for the fast-growing youngsters.
How much do wolf pups weigh? Gray and red wolf pups weigh about a pound at birth. The newborns are blind
and deaf and depend upon their mother for warmth. In about two weeks, their eyes open, and in three weeks, they
emerge from the den and begin to explore their world. Growth is rapid, and by the time the pups are 6 months old,
they are almost as big as the adults.
How much do adult wolves weigh? Wolves vary greatly in size depending on where they live. The smallest
wolves live in the southern parts of the Middle East where the Arabian wolf may weigh no more than 30 pounds.
Adult female gray wolves in northern Minnesota weigh between 50 and 85 pounds, and adult males between 70 and
110 pounds. Gray wolves are larger in the northwestern United States, Canada, and Alaska and in Russia where adult
males weigh 85 to 115 pounds and occasionally reach 130 pounds. Males generally weigh about 20 percent more
than females. Wolves attain their adult height, length and weight in the first one to two years. Most look like adults
by late autumn of their first year.
Red wolves are intermediate in size and appearance between a gray wolf and a coyote. Adult female red wolves weigh
40 to 75 pounds, while males weigh from 50 to 85 pounds.
How long and tall are wolves? As with weight, a wolf’s length and height are variable in different areas of the
world. The average length (tip of nose to tip of tail) of an adult female gray wolf is 4.5 to 6 feet; adult males average 5
to 6.5 feet. The average height (at the shoulder) of a gray wolf is 26 to 32 inches.
The average length (tip of nose to tip of tail) of an adult red wolf is 4.5 to 5.5 feet. The average height (at the
shoulder) of an adult red wolf is about 26 inches.
How big is a wolf’s track? The size of a wolf’s track is dependent on the age and size of the wolf, as well as the
substrate the track was made in. A good size estimate for a gray wolf’s track size is 4 1/2 inches long by 3 1/2 inches
wide. In comparison, a coyote’s track will be closer to 2 1/2 inches long by 1 1/2 inches wide. Only a few breeds of
dogs leave tracks longer than 4 inches (Great Danes, St. Bernards, and some bloodhounds). Red wolves have smaller
feet than gray wolves.
How strong are wolves’ jaws? The massive molars and powerful jaws of a wolf are used to crush the bones of its
prey. The biting capacity of a wolf is 1,000 to 1,500 pounds of pressure per square inch. The strength of a wolf’s jaws
makes it possible to bite through a moose femur in six to eight bites. In comparison, a German shepherd has a biting
pressure of 750 pounds per square inch. A human has a much lower biting pressure of 300 pounds per square inch.
What do wolves eat? Wolves are carnivores, or meat eaters. Gray wolves prey primarily on ungulates – large,
hoofed mammals such as white-tailed deer, mule deer, moose, elk, caribou, bison, Dall sheep, musk oxen, and
mountain goats. Medium-sized mammals, such as beaver and snowshoe hares, can be an important secondary food
source. Occasionally wolves will prey on birds or small mammals such as mice and voles, but these are
supplementary to their requirements for large amounts of meat. Wolves have been observed catching fish in places
like Alaska and western Canada. They will also kill and eat domestic livestock such as cattle and sheep, and they will
consume carrion if no fresh meat is available. If prey is abundant, wolves may not consume an entire carcass, or they
may leave entire carcasses without eating. This is called “surplus killing” and seems inconsistent with the wolves’
habit of killing because they are hungry. Surplus killing seems to occur when prey are vulnerable and easy to catch –
in winter, for instance, when there is deep snow. They may return later to feed on an unconsumed carcass, or they
may leave it to a host of scavengers. Additionally, they may cache food and dig it up at a later time. Red wolves
primarily prey on white-tailed deer, raccoons, rabbits, nutria and other rodents.
How much do wolves eat? Getting enough to eat is a full-time job for a wolf. When wolves catch and kill a large
mammal, they will gorge and then rest while the food is being rapidly digested. They will generally consume all but
the hide, some of the large bones and skull and the rumen (stomach contents of ungulates) of their prey. Gray wolves
can survive on about 2 1/2 pounds of food per wolf per day, but they require about 7 pounds per wolf per day to
reproduce successfully. The most a large gray wolf can eat at one time is about 22.5 pounds. Adult wolves can survive
for days and even weeks without food if they have to. Growing pups, however, require regular nourishment in order
to be strong enough to travel and hunt with the adults by the autumn of their first year. Wolves often rely on food
they have cached after a successful hunt in order to see them through lean times.
Red wolves may eat 2 to 5 pounds of food per day when prey is abundant. Because they are smaller than gray wolves,
they can consume less at one time than their larger cousins. But like all wolves, eating for red wolves is a matter of
“feast” followed by “famine.”
How long do wolves live? It is misleading to say that wolves in the wild live an average of a certain number of
years. There are so many variables. Some wolves die soon after they are born, and others are killed or die in early or
middle adulthood. Members of the dog family like wolves and domestic dogs can live to be 15 or 16 years old –
sometimes even older. Dogs and wolves in captivity have a better shot at making it to a ripe old age because they
usually receive routine veterinary care and regular meals. However, wild wolves have a tough life filled with pitfalls
(see question #19). Many pups don’t make it through the first winter of their lives. Those that survive the first two
years have a pretty good chance of living another two to four years if they can avoid fatal injury and if they can get
enough to eat. Some wild wolves do live to be 9 or 10, and there are verified records of a few living into their early
teens.
What do wolves die from? The natural causes of wolf mortality are primarily starvation, which kills mostly pups,
and death from other wolves because of territory fights. Diseases such as mange, canine parvovirus and distemper
can be killers both in small and recovering populations and in some established populations as well. Lyme disease
also infects wolves, and heartworm can reduce a wolf’s endurance by restricting blood flow to the lungs. Injuries
caused by prey result in some deaths. The large mammals that wolves hunt and kill can inflict mortal injuries with
antlers and hooves. Human-caused mortality including legal (hunting and trapping in some locales) and illegal
(poaching) activities can be high in some populations. Wolves are sometimes hit by cars in areas where road density
is high. Pup mortality rates are highly variable, but approximately 40 to 60 percent of wolf pups die each year.
How fast can wolves run? Wolves will travel for long distances by trotting at about five miles per hour. They can
run at speeds of 36 to 38 miles per hour for short bursts while chasing prey. Although bursts of maximum speed are
relatively short, wolves can maintain pursuit of running prey animals for long distances and over rough terrain.
How far can wolves travel? Wolves are hunters, and they travel far and wide to locate prey. They may travel 50
miles or more each day in search of food, and they are superbly designed for a life on the move. Because their elbows
turn inward, their lean bodies are precisely balanced over their large feet. With their long legs and ground-eating
stride, they can travel tirelessly for hours on end with no energy wasted. Dispersing wolves, those leaving packs in
search of their own mates, have been known to travel hundreds of miles away from their home territory. Satellite
and Global Positioning Satellite (GPS) collars allow researchers to document the truly remarkable travels of wolves.
Why do wolves howl? The howl of the wolf is one of nature’s most evocative and powerful sounds. The haunting
chorus of wolves howling is beautiful – or frightening depending on one’s point of view. Wolves howl to
communicate with one another. They locate members of their own pack by howling, and they often engage in a
group howl before setting off to hunt. The howl is a clear warning to neighboring wolves to stay away.
Are wolves dangerous to people? In a word, the general answer is no. Wolves typically avoid people. BUT!
There are several well-documented accounts of wild wolves attacking people in North America, and although there
were no witnesses, a 2007 inquest determined that a young man killed in northern Saskatchewan in 2005 died as a
result of a wolf attack. Accounts of wolves killing people persist in India and in Russia and parts of central Asia. It is
a fact that when wild animals become habituated to people, they may lose their fear of humans, especially if they are
fed or if they associate humans with providing food. Like any large predator, wolves are perfectly capable of killing
people. No one should ever encourage a wolf or any other wild animal to approach, and hikers and campers should
take all necessary precautions to prevent mishaps involving wildlife.
Will wolves disappear again from the lower 48 states if they are not federally protected by the
Endangered Species Act? It is unlikely. The general public is invested in the return and recovery of the great
predators on the landscape. Wolves reproduce rapidly, and every spring brings a new pup crop to add to the growing
numbers in the areas where wolves have made a comeback. Wolves were eradicated in the 19th and early 20th
Centuries by the federal government’s systematic poisoning campaign. It is probably safe to predict that this practice
will never be repeated.
http://www.wolf.org/learn/basic-wolf-info/wolf-faqs/
Article 6
Types of Wolves
There are two widely recognized species of wolves in the world, the red and the gray.
SCIENTIFIC CLASSIFICATION OF WOLVES
Classification, or taxonomy, is the system of categorizing all living things. Living things are separated into different
categories based on similarities and/or common ancestry.
Kingdom
Animalia = All animals
Phylum
Chordata = Animals with a backbone
Class
Mammalia = All mammals
Order
Carnivora = Carnivorous mammals
Family
Canidae = Dog-like mammals
Genus
Canis = Dogs
Species
lupus (gray wolves)
rufus (red wolves)
lycaon (some scientists think is a subspecies of gray wolf – see below)
Examples of
other Canid
Species
latrans (coyote) aureus (golden jackal)
mesomelas (black-backed jackal)
adustus (side-striped jackal)
dingo (dingo)
familiaris (domestic dog)
simensis (Abyssinian or Ethiopian wolf)
COMMON NAMES
Unlike scientific names, common names are not always unique and vary by culture and
geographic region. For example, a gray wolf living in a forested area might be called a
“timber wolf” while a gray wolf living on the tundra might be called a tundra wolf.
The canid family consists of thirty-five living species. Eight of these species inhabit North
America. These North American species include gray wolves, red wolves, coyotes, red
foxes, gray foxes, kit foxes, swift foxes and arctic foxes. The eight species may be organized
in three general categories: wolves, coyotes and foxes.
Figure 5 Gray wolves are not
always gray in color.
Wolves are the largest members of the canid family. This is the species from which our pet dogs were domesticated.
Wolves were once the most widely distributed, wild terrestrial mammals. They inhabited
most of the available land in the northern hemisphere. Due to the destruction of their
habitat and persecution by humans, they now occupy only about two-thirds of their
former range worldwide, and only about 5-8 percent of the contiguous 48 United States.
Wolves can be found in a variety of climates and habitats. These
habitat variations are sometimes seen in the type of
Figure 6Arctic Gray Wolf
morphology, or physical characteristics, seen in gray wolves
living in different geographical areas. These differences sometimes differentiate types, or
subspecies, of gray wolves around the world.
Subspecies of gray wolves in North America include the Arctic wolf (Canis lupus arctos),
northwestern wolf (Canis lupus occidentalis), Great Plains wolf (Canis lupus nubilus),
Figure 7 Adult red wolf with
pup
Mexican wolf(Canis lupus baileyi) and the eastern timber wolf (Canis lupus lycaon),
which is debated by some as a distinct species, the eastern wolf (Canis lycaon). In reality,
any differences among all these proposed types are so minor as to be meaningless except to a few specialists.
Red wolves are only found in a small area of coastal North Carolina. They are a North American species of wolf not
found elsewhere. Their social and predatory behaviors are the same as gray wolves.
Coyotes (Canis latrans) are smaller than most mature wolves. Resilient animals, they have
higher population numbers and inhabit a much larger range than do wolves. Coyotes are able
to adapt to change and have a strong tolerance for human encroachment.
Like wolves, coyotes have been persecuted because of their predatory nature. They are still
trapped and killed in predator control programs throughout North America but continue to
thrive.
Foxes match the coyote’s ability to cope with civilization. Foxes
Figure 8 Western coyote
are in the same family as wolves and coyotes (Canidae) but not the
same genus. Gray(Urocyon cinereoargenteus) and red (Vulpes vulpes) foxes inhabit
about three-quarters of the United States. Swift (Vulpes velox) and kit (Vulpes
macrotis)foxes inhabit only small portions of the western United States. Arctic
foxes (Alopex lagopus) live in the northern portions of Canada, Alaska and outlying areas
of Greenland.
Figure 9 Red fox
http://www.wolf.org/learn/basic-wolf-info/types-of-wolves/
Article 7
Wolf Biology and Behavior
Impacts on Prey
Wolf kill rates vary in relation to winter severity. Young, old, and sick prey animals are often nutritionally stressed
and have difficulty traveling in deep snow. Wolf kill rates are highest during severe winters and the following spring.
Sometimes wolf predation can keep prey populations at low levels for extended periods, but habitat alterations like
forest cutting or fire, improved weather conditions, and human management practices allow prey populations to
quickly recover.
One example of the predator-prey dynamic is that the reductions in ungulate herds caused by wolves increases
habitat quality and helps rid the herd of genetically unfit and diseased individuals. This results in long term
maintenance of a healthier ungulate herd. For example, deer and wolves have evolved together and wolf predation
has played a crucial role in making the deer what it is today.
Population Cycles
Wolf density often changes with the density of their primary prey. For example, in the northern Great Lakes region,
the severe winters of 1995-96 and 1996-97 resulted in substantial numbers of deer being stressed and many starved
or were killed by wolves. This provided a readily available food supply to wolves and increased their survival.
Wolf-moose population graph from Isle Royale (R. Peterson)
However, wolf numbers usually decline a year or two following the decline of primary prey. In addition to other
factors, the mild winters since 1997 have been favorable to deer populations by increasing the winter survival of deer
and in turn increasing the number of fawns being born.
Potential for Population Change
With abundant food and low human-caused mortality, wolves have a high capacity for population growth. In fact, in
the right conditions, wolf populations can double in two to three years. From 1997 to 2000 the wolf population in
the Northern Rocky states doubled from 200 to 400. Wolf populations can decline, however, if human caused
mortality is consistently greater than 28-50% of the fall wolf population.
http://www.wolf.org/learn/basic-wolf-info/biology-and-behavior/
Article 8
FACT SHEET - WOLF REINTRODUCTION IN THE UNITED
STATES
By T. R. Mader, Research Director
After their success at forcing wolf recovery in Yellowstone National Park, special interest groups
are proposing the reintroduction of wolves in various regions of the United States (U.S.). Based on
extensive research, we oppose transplanting wolves in the U.S. for the following reasons:
1. Wolves are not biologically in danger of extinction and should be removed from the
Endangered Species Act (ESA). There are 1,500 to 2,000 wolves in Minnesota, 6,000 to 10,000 in
Alaska and 40,000 to 50,000 wolves in Canada, according to the biologists. They are certainly not
in danger of extinction.
The ESA has two provisions for listing a species as "endangered." One is a species in danger of
actual extinction, and two, a species can be placed on the Act if it has lost a considerable amount of
its former territory.
The wolf is listed "endangered" for the second reason since it inhabited most of the U.S. However,
wolves have not ever been in danger of biological extinction.
Note: The penalty for killing an endangered wolf, even in the protection of ones' livelihood, is
$100,000 and a mandatory prison sentence.
2. Wolf recovery will be very costly, and a constant on-going expense for federal and state
governments as well as placing hardship on individuals who live near recovery areas. In
Yellowstone, cost estimates on wolf recovery are from $200,000 to 1 million per wolf.
Furthermore, little, if any, actual benefit is gained from wolves being in the region. For example:
A. Very few people will see a wolf. Wolves are very shy, elusive and nocturnal by nature.
Yellowstone Park officials have praised the numerous sightings. However, in relation to total
numbers of visitors to Yellowstone in 1996, less than .005 ever saw a wolf in 1996. If wolves
become accustomed to humans, then they are a danger just as mountain lions have become
throughout the West. Even Yellowstone's records document several coyote attacks on humans.
Similar incidences have been reported in other parts of North America.
B. Wolves will reduce the numbers of animals observed by people. Wolves are hunters. They
hunt 365 days a year and need 5 to 10 pounds of meat per day to survive. Therefore, to maintain a
healthy wolf population, wolves would have to kill a significant number of wild animals for
survival. Thus, there would be fewer animals seen by wildlife viewers.
Additionally, fewer animals will be observed due to the wariness of the animals. Just as elk or deer
become vigilant during hunting season, so will the wild animals of the regions where wolves roam.
One significant difference will be that hunting season for wolves is year-round and therefore the
animals will be significantly more wary and seen less by people. Algonquin Provincial Park in
Canada is a good example - deer are seldom seen.
C. Reduction of harvestable game. In other words, wolves will have a negative impact on
hunting. Often recovery programs are implemented in National Parks where hunting is not allowed.
However, the wild game herds migrate out to areas where people can hunt them. Wolves will
reduce these animal numbers. Wayne Brewster, a National Park Service Biologist, told guides and
outfitters, who lived north of Yellowstone National Park, to expect a fifty percent (50%) reduction
in harvestable game when wolves were reintroduced to Yellowstone National Park.
Wolf predation and harvest by man (hunting) are not compatible. Studies have shown that prey
populations cannot withstand hunting by man and uncontrolled wolf predation. If wolves recover in
an area where hunting is allowed, hunting would most likely be stopped or limited significantly for
the benefit of wolf recovery. Studies on wolf recovery have estimated that hunting could be
reduced by 50% in certain cases.
Hunting has a significant positive impact on the economies of the western states. It is a valuable
wildlife management tool. Hunting can be used very effectively to control wildlife populations
while contributing substantial amounts of money for wildlife habitat improvement and wildlife
studies.
D. Balance of nature will not be restored. Many claim the wolf is "the missing link" in the
ecosystem. What's not being said is that wolves would create a whole new set of problems in the
course of nature and wildlife management.
E. Wolves will kill livestock. Our research indicates there is more history on wolves and their
destruction of livestock than any other predator.
From the time of the colonists, wolves have killed livestock. One of the first wolf bounty laws was
passed in Boston in 1630. It wasn't until the 1930s that wolves were significantly reduced in
number to prevent livestock depredation in the U.S.
**************************
Here's how wolves impact hunting so severely. Wolves are opportunists, meaning they kill
whatever is convenient. This may be an old or sick animal, a pregnant female (wolves are
particularly hard on females heavy with young - they kill many of them), but most significantly
they prey on the young due to the ease of catching and killing them.
We have interviews with several wolf biologists in Canada. Wolf biologist John Elliot (British
Colombia Ministry of Environment) took the time to explain the impacts of wolf predation on a
herd of wild game, whether it be moose, caribou, elk or deer.
In this particular example, he used a number of 300 females in a herd of elk. In his region, wolf
predation is often 90% on the young (100% mortality rates due to predation are common in the
north). If 300 females gave birth in an area of wolves, the approximate loss would be about 270
young calves killed during the summer months, leaving 30 yearlings to serve as replacements. A
regular die-off rate on such a herd is about 10%. So the 30 yearlings would balance out the regular
mortality rate of the female segment of the herd.
But overall there is a decline in the elk herd due to the fact the 30 yearlings are usually sexually
split in half (15 females and 15 males), thus the reproductive segment of the herd declines although
the numbers appear to balance out. Without some form of wolf control, the rate of decline will
increase within a few years.
There were approximately 100 males in this herd of elk. Figuring the regular mortality rate and
compensating with the surviving young leaves 5 animals which may be harvested by man (harvest
of males only).
Now if this herd of elk were in an area of no wolves, there would be approximately 60 - 70%
successful reproduction (calves making it to yearlings) or 200 young. Half of those surviving young
would be male (100 animals). After figuring a 10% mortality rate, 90 older animals could be
harvested without impact to the overall herd numbers. In fact, the herd would increase due to
additional numbers of the reproductive segment (females) of the herd.
****************
Finally, two important points:
1. It's questionable how much actual benefit wolf recovery is for wolves. We do know wolf
recovery benefits the people who make money off the animal. These are the special interest groups,
biologists and researchers who study and promote the animal -- often at great taxpayer expense.
Further, there are those who use endangered species as a surrogate for personal agendas such as
anti-hunting and land control. There's also a conflict of interest involved: "Those who write
recovery plans for wolves and other endangered species, choose the alternatives, conduct and
edit the science, edit the comments and make all the decisions, are the same ones who benefit
directly from their own contrived determinations."
2. Wildlife management is an art science, not a specific science. A specific science is something
that is specific and can be tested, tested and re-tested with the same results every time. Chemistry is
an example. A chemist can mix one element with another element and get a certain and definite
reaction every time. That is specific. Wildlife management is an art science in that there are so
many variables that two biologists can look at the same studies and come up with different
conclusions. Quite often wolf biologists do not agree with each other in their studies about wolves.
This is the very reason for the need to review history. History helps biology and wildlife
management become realistic.
http://www.aws.vcn.com/fact.html
NAME ____________________________________________________________
Wolf Relocation
1. Article 1 says that the goal of the relocation project is to establish self sustaining populations with
about 10 packs of 10 animals each. Using the information in Article 2, will that be enough wolves to
have the wolf removed from the endangered species list? Why or why not?
2. Article 3 provides a different goal of the relocation project. What is it?
3. What is the average size of a wolf pack? Cite at least 3 different articles.
4. Article 1 says that the goal of the relocation project is to establish self sustaining populations with
about 10 packs of 10 animals each. Article 3 gives current statistics on wolf population. Was the goal
achieved?
5. Article 1 gives 4 different reasons why some people opposed the wolf relocation program. What are
they?
6. What is the difference between an endangered species and a threatened species? (Article 2)
7. What is the cost of the relocation program? (Article 3)
8. Use the information in Article 3 to draw a food chain of the wolf’s ecosystem.
9. Why are wolves endangered? (Article 4)
10. Compare a wolf with a dog. (Articles 5 and 6) What are some ways that they different?
11. Compare a wolf with a coyote. (Article 6) How are they different?
12. Article 7 says that wolf predation “has played a crucial role in making the deer what it is today.” How?
13. Article 8 is titled “Fact Sheet” but is really meant to be persuasive. Why does the author want?