General Biology II Laboratory at IRSC
PLANTS
Taxonomy:

Domain Eukarya
o
Kingdom Plantae



“Bryophytes” – seedless, nonvascular plants

Phylum Hepatophyta – liverworts

Phylum Anthocerophyta – hornworts

Phylum Bryophyta – moss
“Pteridophytes” – seedless vascular plants

Phylum Lycopopiophyta – club moss

Phylum Monilophyta – wisk fern, horsetails, ferns
Vascular Plants Tracheophytes
Seed vascular plants


“Gymnosperms” - naked seeds
o
Group Cycadophyta
o
Group Ginkgophyta
o
Group Gnetophyta
o
Group Coniferophyta
“Angiosperms” – flowering with fruit
o
Class Eudicots
o
Class Monocots
Nonvascular Plants

Observe live and preserved specimens on lab bench

Be familiar with moss life cycle (found in lab book)
o
Alternation of Generations

Sporophyte Generation

Diploid

Meiosis creates haploid spores
o


Haploid

Male – antheridia
o
o

o

Produces flagellated sperm, dependent on water
Look at slide (Mnium) - #1a
Female – archegonia
o
o
Happens in the sporangium - #2
Gametophyte Generation
Produces egg
Look at slide (Mnium) - #1b
In nonvascular plants, the gametophyte generation is dominant
Liverworts – observe Marchantia : antheridia and archegonia, gemma cups
Vascular Seedless Plants

Observe live and preserved specimens on lab bench

Be familiar with fern life cycle

Have vascular tissue so they can grow larger and live in drier environments but still depend on water for dispersal of flagellated sperm

What are microphylls? What are rhizoids? Rhizomes?

Sporophyte generation is dominant (differs from nonvascular)
o
Gametophyte is smaller

Observe fern prothallus with antheridia and archegonia
General Biology II Lab Packet
1
Look at slide - # 8,9


Look at slide of cross-section of fern frond to see sorus (sporangium where spores are produced) - #7
Seed Plants – Embryophytes

Seed – structure that contains next generation (seed protects embryo)

Sporophyte generation is dominant


o
Gametophyte generation is very small (microscopic)
o
Sporangia

Female - Megasporangia produces gametophyte contained in ovule

Male – Microsporangia produces gametophyte in pollen
Gymnosperms – “naked seed”
o
Observe live and preserved specimens of the 4 groups on lab bench
o
Pines

Be familiar with pine life cycle

View difference in sizes of male and female cones

Look at slide of female cone - #11

Look at slide of male cone (observe pollen) - #12
Angiosperms – flowering plants (produce flowers and fruit)
o
Be familiar with flowering plant life cycle
o
Megaspore – in the ovule

Female gametophyte

Embryo sac – 7 cells (1 of which has 2 nuclei)
Look at slide of cross-section of Lily ovule - #15,16

o
Microspore – in anther

Male gametophyte in pollen grain

Pollenation – transfer of pollen grain to stigma

Pollen grain germinates
o
2 sperm – Double Fertilization

1 fertilizes egg

1 joins cell with 2 nuclei to form triploid endosperm (nutrient source for developing
embryo in seed)
Look at slide of cross-section of Lily anther (observe pollen) - #13

o
After fertilization:

Ovule becomes seed


3 generations of tissues
o
2n parent sporophyte
o
1n parent gametophyte
o
2n new sporophyte (embryo)
Ovary becomes fruit
o
Monocots versus Eudicots – know differences
o
Flower Model and live flower specimens

Be able to identify structures and know function:

Stamen

Carpel
o
anther
o
stigma
o
filament
o
style
o
ovary
o
ovule

petals

sepals
General Biology II Lab Packet
2
o
Seed Germination Model

Eudicot seed germination

Primary root (radicle) develops

2 cotyledons emerge

Cotyledons are large and have almost completely taken up endosperm

In some eudicots, the cotyledons protect new plant as it pushes through soil and
emerges
o


o
Monocot seed germination

Cotyledon is small and is pushed up against endosperm

Primary root develops

Coleoptile emerges, sheath that protects emerging true leaves
Fruits

Simple Fruits - develop from single ovary




o
In other eudicots, the cotyledons stay in the soil
Primary leaves develop
Fleshy fruits
o
Drupes – cherry
o
Berries – grape, tomato
o
Tomato – ovary has many chambers
o
Pomes – apple
Dry fruits
o
Legumes – pea
o
Samaras – maple
o
Nuts – oak, walnut
o
Grains – wheat, corn
o
sunflower, dandelion
Aggregate Fruits - develop from numerous carpels within a single flower

Blackberries

Raspberries

Strawberries
Multiple fruits - develop from a number of ovaries of several flowers

Pineapples

Mulberries

Figs
Meristematic (embryonic tissue)

Plant can continue to grow

Apical meristems


Terminal ends of roots, branches, stems

Shoot system – stem, branches, leaves

Root system - roots
Cells divide and differentiate into tissues
o
Dermal tissue
General Biology II Lab Packet
3
o
o
Ground tissue
o
Vascular tissue
Root Model

Identify and know function:

root cap

root hairs

zone of cell division

zone of elongation

zone of maturation

_______________

_______________

_______________

Look at top of model – are you looking at eudicot or monocot root?

Distinguish dermal, ground, and vascular tissue

Look at slide of eudicot root (longitudinal and cross-section) and cross-section of monocot
root - #18,19,20
o
Root Diversity – look at examples of root diversity on lab bench and in lab book
o
Stems

Look at slide of cross-section of eudicot stem and monocot stem, be able to distinguish #21

Herbaceous – nonwoody

Observe Twig on lab bench


Monocots and some eudicots
Identify:
o
Terminal bud
o
Terminal bud scale scars (from last year’s growth)
o
Leaf scar
o
Stem Diversity – look at examples of stem diversity on lab bench and in lab book
o
Woody growth – secondary growth (Proliferating xylem)

Model


Identify and know function:
o
bark
o
cork
o
cork cambium
o
phloem
o
vascular cambium
o
xylem
o
summer wood
o
spring wood
o
__________________
o
__________________
o
__________________
Taking a look at this model, can you identify what would be dermal tissue, ground tissue,
vascular tissue?
Look at cross-section of woody stem - #22
General Biology II Lab Packet
4
o
Leaves

Take a look at examples on lab bench

Leaf Model
o


Identify and know function:

stoma

epidermis

vein

spongy Mesophyll

palisade Mesophyll

_______________

_______________

_______________
Look at slide of cross-section of monocot and eudicot leaves - #17
Write what you observed during the following lab activities:
o
Tropisms (Gravitropism, Phototropism)
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o
Transpiration Experiment
_____________________________________________________________________________
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Effects of acid rain on plant growth
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Make notation of additional information your lab instructor would like you to learn about plants:
General Biology II Lab Packet
5
Structures for Practical #1 (also know function, if applicable)
Abscisic acid
Gametophyte
Primary growth
Acid rain
Gemmae
Prothallus
Adventitious roots
Germination
Protonema
Angiospermae
Gibberellin
Psilotium
Anther
Ginkgophyta
Pteridophyta
Antheridium
Ginko
Radicle
Antipodal
Gnetophyta
Rhizoid
Apical bud
Gravitropism
Rhizome
Apical meristem
Guard cell
Root
Archegonium
Gymnosperm
Root cap
Auxin
Haploid
Root hair
Axillary bud
Hepatophyta
Sclerenchyma
Axillary bud
Herbaceous
Secondary growth
Bryophyta
Horsetails
Seed
Bulb
Indusium
Seed cone
Capsule
Integuments
Selaginella
Carpel
Internode
Sepal
Casparian strip
Lateral bud
Sorus
Chlorenchyma
Leaf
Spongy chlorenchyma
Coleoptile
Lignin
Sporangium
Coleorhiza
Liverworts
Spores
Collenchyma
Lycophyta
Sporophyll
Coniferophyta
Lycopodium
Sporophyte
Cork Cambium
Marchantia
Stamen
Corm
Meiosis
Stem
Cortex
Mesophyll
Stigma
Cycadophyta
Micropyle
Stolon
Cytokinin
Mitosis
Stoma
Diploid
Mnium
Strobilus
Double fertilization
Monocot
Style
Egg
Node
Suberin
Embryo
Ovary
Synergid
Embryo sac
Ovule
Taproots
Endodermis
Palisade chlorenchyma
Terminal bud
Endosperm
Parenchyma
Thallus
Ephedra
Pericycle
Transpiration
Epidermis
Petal
Triploid
Equisetum
Petiole
Tuber
Ethylene
Phloem
Vascular bundle
Etiolation
Phototropism
Vascular cambium
Eudicot
Pistil
Woody
Fertilization
Pith
Xylem
Fibrous roots
Pollen cone
Zone of cell division
Filament
Pollen grain
Zone of elongation
Frond
Pollen tube
Zone of maturation
Fruit
Pollination
General Biology II Lab Packet
6
ANIMALS
Taxonomy:
Domain Eukarya

Kingdom Animalia
o
Phylum Porifera – sponges, no true tissues, no true symmetry
o
Subkingdom Eumetazoa – tissue layers, symmetry, gut, special cell junctions

Radiata – diploblastic

Phylum Ctenophora

Phylum Cnidaria
o

Class Hydrozoa, Class Scyphozoa, Class Anthozoa
Bilateria – triploblastic

Protostomes – 1st embryonic blastopore becomes mouth
o
Superphyla Lophotrochozoans

Typical larvae is trochophore larvae

Some have lophophore – circular ridge around mouth with tentacles

A lot are marine
o
Phylum Platyhelminthes, Flatworms – acoelomate
o
Phylum Rotifera, Rotifers – psuedocoelomate
o
Phylum Annelida, Annelids – coelomate

Class Turbellaria, Class Trematoda, Class Cestoda

Class Oligiochaeta, Class Polychaeta, Class Hirudinea

Segmented, coelom in each segment separated from
other segment

o
Mostly closed circulatory system
Phylum Mollusca, Mollusks – coelomate (reduced)

Class Polyplacophora, Class Gastropoda, Class Bivalvia,
Class Cephalopoda

o

Open circulatory system except in cephalopods
Superphyla Ecydsozoans

Exoskeleton (some that are worm-like have thin exoskeleton called a cuticle)

Groups:

Phylum Nematoda - pseudocoelomate

Phylum Arthropoda – coelomate (hemocoel)
o
Open circulatory system
o
Most diverse and numerous animals on earth
o
Typical larvae is naupilus

Chelicerates – Horseshoe crabs, Class Arachnids

Crustaceans – Class Crustacea
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Myriapods - Class Chilopoda, Class Diplopoda,

Insects/Hexapods
st
Deuterostomes – 1 embryonic blastophore becomes the anus, all coelomates, internal skeletons

Phylum Echinodermata, Echinoderms

Class Astroidea, Class Ophiuroidea, Class Echinoidea, Class Holothuroidea,
Class Crinoidea
o
Phylum Chordata, Chordates – notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, post-anal tail

Subphylum Urochordata, Urochordates - tunicates

Subphylum Cephalochordata, Cephalochordates - lancelets

Subphylum Vertebrata, Vertebrates

Superclass Agnatha, Jawless Fishes
o
Hagfishes
General Biology II Lab Packet
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o


cartilaginous
Lampreys
cartilaginous, many parasitic
Gnathostomes – “jaw mouths”
o
Class Chondrichthyes, Chondrichthyans – cartilaginous fishes
o
Class Osteichthyes, Ray-finned fishes – bony fishes
o
Class Amphibia, Amphibians – tetrapod legs allowed movement from
water to land
o
Amniotes – skin impermeable to water, kidneys excrete
concentrated urine, amniotic egg

Class Reptilia and Class Aves, Reptiles – includes birds
and squamates


Class Mammalia, Mammals
For all of the animal groups, familiarize yourself with the following characteristics of each group:
Make Flash Cards!!!!!!
It might be very helpful
To make flashcards, also!!!

Phylum Porifera
o
o

Observe preserved specimens on lab bench
Look at slide of Grantia - #24,25
o
Assymetrical
o
Do these organisms have true organized tissues?
o
At what life stage do these organisms have mobility?
o
Identify osculum and choanocytes
Phylum Cnidaria
o
Observe preserved specimens on lab bench
o
General Characteristics
o

Two germ layers

Radial symmetry
Class Hydrozoa – Hydra, portuguese man-of-war



Look at hydra slide - #26
Look at Obelia medusa and polyp - #27,28
Hydra Model

Identify and know function of:
o
mouth
General Biology II Lab Packet
8

gastrovascular cavity
o
tentacle
o
basal disk
o
gland cell
o
mesoglea
o
cnidocyte
o
________________
o
________________
o
Class Scyphozoa – “jellyfish”
o
Class Anthozoa – hard corals and soft corals
Phylum Platyhelminthes (flat worms)
o
Class Turbellaria – free-living flatworms

Planaria Model

Identify and know function of:
o
eye spot
o
brain
o
pharynx
o
auricles
o
ovary
o
gastrovascular
o
testis
o
______________
o
flame cell
o
______________
Look at slide of Planaria - #29,30

o
Class Trematoda – flukes and Class Cestoda – tapeworms


o
Parasites
Phylum Nematoda
o
Protostomes
o
Pseudocoelomates
o
Complete digestive system
o
Many are parasitic
o
Have cuticle that is molted as it grows
o
Identify differences between sexes of Ascaris


Phylum Rotifera

Phylum Mollusca
cross-section of Ascaris - #31
o
Observe preserved specimens on lab bench
o
General Characteristics:

Protostomes

Coelomates

3-part body – muscular foot, visceral mass, mantle

Complete digestive system
o
Class Polyplacophora – chitins
o
Class Gastropoda – snails, slug
o
Class Bivalvia – clams

Clam model

Identify and know function of:
o
foot
o
mouth
o
gill
o
stomach
o
gonad
o
anus
o
intestine
o
kidney
General Biology II Lab Packet
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o
o
heart
o
______________
o
mantle
o
______________
o
______________
Class Cephalopoda – octopus, squid

closed circulatory system

considered to be the most intelligent invertebrates

Look at the squid biomount

Identify following structures:
o
_________________
o
_________________
o
_________________
o
_________________
o

Phylum Annelida – segmented worms
o
General characteristics:

Protostomes

Coelomates

Complete digestive system

Closed circulatory system
General Biology II Lab Packet
10
o
Class Oligochaeta – earthworms

Earthworm Model

o
brain
o
gizzard
o
hearts
o
dorsal vessel
o
esophagus
o
clitellum
o
seminal vesicle
o
______________
o
seminal receptacle
o
______________
o
crop
Look at slide of cross-section of earthworm - #32



Identify and know function of:
Notice the typhlosole – fold that increases surface of intestine
o
Class Polychaeta – sand worms, feather dusters
o
Class Hirudinea – leeches
Phylum Arthropoda
o
Observe preserved specimens on lab bench
o
General characteristics:
o

Protostomes

Coelomates

“jointed legs”

hard exoskeleton – chitin, undergoes ecdysis

open circulatory system

complete digestive system
Chelicerates – horseshoe crabs and arachnids (spider, ticks, scorpions)
General Biology II Lab Packet
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o
Crustaceans – crabs, lobster, shrimp

o
Look at crawfish model, identify structures found during dissection

Insects and relatives

Chilopods – centipedes

Diplopods – millipedes (2 pairs of legs per segment)

Insects/Hexapods – insects


Grasshopper Model - Identify and know function of:
o
brain
o
heart
o
nerve ganglion
o
crop,
o
malpighian tubules
o
trachea
o
spiracles
o
________________
o
________________
Insects
o
Head, thorax, abdomen
o
3 pairs jointed appendages and 2 antennae
o
Respiration – tracheae
o
Insect Metamorphosis



Complete Metamorphosis

Drastic change

Larvae does not resemble adult

Example is butterfly
Incomplete metamorphosis

Gradual change

Larvae (nymphs) resemble adult

Example is grasshopper
Phylum Echinodermata
o
Observe preserved specimens on lab bench
o
General characteristics:

Endoskeleton

Adult can be radially symmetrical (pentrahedral) but larvae are bilateral

Most unique feature is water vascular system
General Biology II Lab Packet
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o
Class Astroidea – sea stars


Sea Star Model - Identify and know function of:

tube feet

radial canal (down arms)

ampulla

ring canal

anus

spines

mouth

aboral side

pyloric stomach

oral side

cardiac stomach

madreporite

gonads

_______________
o
Class Ophiuroidea – brittle stars
o
Class Echinodea – Sea urchins
o
Class Holothuroidea – sea cucumber
o
Class Crinodea – sea lillies
o
Deuterostomes – up until this point we have been seeing protostomes
Phylum Chordata
o
Observe preserved specimens on lab bench
o
General characteristics:

Chordate characteristics

Dorsal tubular nerve cord

Notochord (supporting rod)

Postanal tail

Pharyngeal gill slits - Can become gills; or in terrestrial chordates, will be modified during
embryological development

Subphylum Urochordata – tunicates
o
Subphylum Cephalochordata – lancelets

o

Deuterostomes
o
Look at lancelet model and
slides - #33,47

_____________________

_____________________

_____________________

_____________________
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_____________________
Subphylum Vertebrata – Vertebrates

Superclass Agnatha – jawless fishes

Superclass Gnathostoma – jaws

Class Chondrichthyes – sharks, rays

Class Osteichthyes – bony fish

Class Amphibia – amphibians

Class Reptilia – reptiles and Aves (birds)

Class Mammalia – mammals
Make notation of additional information your lab instructor would like you to learn about animals:
General Biology II Lab Packet
13
Page 14
Arthropod
Grasshopper
Arthropod
Crawfish
Mollusca
Squid
Mollusca
Clam
Annelida
Earthworm
Nematoda
Roundworm
Planaria
Platyhelminthes
Cnidaria
Hydra
Porifera
Sponge
Animal
Symmetry
Type of Body
Cavity
Digestion
Circulation
Respiration
Excretion
Page 15
Arthropod
Crawfish
Mollusca
Squid
Mollusca
Clam
Annelida
Earthworm
Nematoda
Roundworm
Planaria
Platyhelminthes
Cnidaria
Hydra
Porifera
Sponge
Animal
Locomotion
Support
Segmentation
Appendages
Nervous
Habitat
Other
Page 16
Chordata
Pig
Chordata
Amphioxus
Echinodermata
Sea Star
Animal
Chordata
Pig
Chordata
Amphioxus
Echinodermata
Sea Star
Animal
Locomotion
Symmetry
Support
Type of Body
Cavity
Segmentation
Digestion
Appendages
Circulation
Nervous
Respiration
Habitat
Excretion
Structures for Practical #2 (also know function, if applicable)
Acoelomate
Diploblastic
Instar
Prototherian
Adductor muscle
Diplopoda
Intestine
Psuedocoelomate
Adult
Dorsal nerve cord
Kidney
Pupa
Agnatha
Echinodermata
Labial palps
Radial canal
Amoebocyte
Echinoidea
Larva
Reproductive polyp
Amphibia
Egg
Malpighian tubule
Reptilia
Annelida
Epidermal cell
Madreporite
Ring canal
Anthozoa
Esophagus
Mammary glands
Rotifera
Antenna
Excurrent siphon
Mammalia
Scolex
Anus
Eutherian
Mantle
Scyphozoa
Arachnida
Eye
Marsupial
Seminal receptacle
Arthropoda
Eye spot
Medusa
Seminal vesicle
Astroidea
Fat body
Metamorphosis
Setae
Aves
Feeding polyp
(Meta)nephridia
Septa
Bivalvia
Filter feeder
Mollusca
Spicule
Brain
Flame cell (protonephridia)
Monotreme
Spiracle
Carapace
Foot
Nematocyst
Spongocoel
Cephalochordata
Forewing
Nematoda
Stomach
Cephalopoda
Gastric ceca
Nemertea
Stone canal
Cephalothorax
Gastric mill
Notochord
Swimmerets
Cestoda
Gastropoda
Nymph
Tentacles
Chelicerata
Gastrovascular
Oligochaeta
Teste
Ophiuroidea
Tracheal tubes
Chilopoda
cavity
Choanocytes
Gills
Osteichthyes
Trematoda
Chondrichthyes
Gizzard
Ovary
Triploblastic
Chordata
Gnathostomata
Ovipositor
Tube feet
Clasper
Gonad
Pharyngeal
Turbellaria
Clitellum
Green gland
Cnidaria
Hair
Pharynx
Umbo
Cnidocyte
Heart
Placental
Uniramia
Coelomate
Hemichordata
Planula
Urochordata
Corona
Hexapoda
Platyhelminthes
Uropod
Crinoidea
Hindwing
Polychaeta
Valves
Crop
Hinge ligament
Polyp
Ventral nerve cord
Crustacea
Hirudinea
Polyplacophora
Vertebrata
Ctenophora
Holothuroidea
Porifera
Visceral mass
Cuticle
Hydrozoa
Post-anal tail
Water vascular system
Detritus feeder
Incurrent siphon
Proglottid
Wheel organ
Deuterostome
Ingestion
Protonephridia
Digestive gland
Insecta
Protostomes
slits/pouches
Page 17
Typhlosole
Tissues and Systems and Pig

Tissues
o
Be able to identify, name function, and typical location of each
Observe slides under microscope
o
o
4 major types:



Epithelial

Simple squamous - #44

Simple cuboidal - #44

Simple columnar - #44

Stratified squamous - #35

Pseudostratified epithelium - #37
Muscle

Skeletal - #38

Smooth - #38

Cardiac - #38
Nervous

Neuron - #39

Neuron Model – Identify:
o
Cell body
o
Axon
o
Myelin sheath covering axon
o
Dendrites – extensions of cell body

The tiny, orange structures you see attached in this area are the axon terminals of
another neuron



Areolar - #49

Dense fibrous - #48

Adipose - #40

Blood - #43

Compact bone - #41

Hyaline cartilage - #42
Skin Model
o
o
3 sections

left – hairy scalp

middle – armpit

right – sole of foot (notice thick epidermis)
Identify

epidermis

arrector pili muscle

dermis

sense organs

subcutaneous layer

_________________

hair follicle

_________________

oil gland

sweat gland


Connective
skin slide - #35
Kidney Model
o
3 parts

Cross-section of kidney

Magnified nephron
Page 18

o

Magnified Bowman’s capsule of nephron
Identify

ureter

collecting ducts

nephron

renal pyramids

bowman’s capsule

renal pelvis

glomerulus

peritubular capillaries

proximal convoluted tubule

______________

Henle’s loop

______________

distal convoluted tubule
Heart Model
o
Be able to trace a drop of blood through the heart

Start with entering through vena cava

Include chambers and valves

End with aorta

Know the connections to the pulmonary and systemic circuits
o
Open atrium to observe fossa ovalis between the 2 chambers
o
Identify


Chambers

Right, left atrium

Right, left ventricles
Valves

Tricuspid

Bicuspid

Aortic semilunar

Pulmonary semilunar

Septum (wall between ventricles)

Vessels

Inferior and superior vena cava

Pulmonary trunk leading to pulmonary arteries

Pulmonary veins

Aortic arch

Coronary artery
Page 19

PIG DISSECTION
o
Follow incision and storage directions carefully!!!
o
Review the external anatomy of your pig, identify the sex of your pig
o
For the pig practical, you will have to identify each listed structure, organ, or vessel AND name 1 function:
o
Vessels (review diagram on Dr. Capers’ website)

Coronary artery

Descending thoracic aorta

Pulmonary trunk

Dorsal (abdominal) aorta

Pulmonary artery/vein

Celiac artery

Posterior vena cava

Anterior mesenteric artery

Anterior vena cava

Renal artery/vein

Brachiocephalic vein

Hepatic vein

Subclavian artery/vein

Hepatic portal (optional)

Internal/external jugular

Common iliac artery/vein

Carotid artery

Umbilical artery/vein

Aortic arch
o
Pharynx
o
Thymus
o
Epiglottis
o
Thyroid
o
Larynx
o
Heart
o
Esophagus
o
Pericardial sac
o
Trachea
o
Right/left atrium of heart
o
Lungs
o
Right/left ventricle of heart
o
Diaphragm
o
Ductus arteriosus between aorta and
o
Liver
o
Gall bladder
o
Ureter
o
Stomach
o
Kidney
o
Duodenum of small intestine
o
Urinary bladder
o
Jejuno-ileum of small intestine
o
Urethra
o
Pancreas
o
Oviduct OR vas deferens
o
Mesentery
o
Ovary OR testes
o
Colon
o
Vagina OR penis
o
Spleen
o
Uterus OR bulbourethral gland
o
Rectum
o
Uterine horn OR epididymis
o
Caecum
o
pulmonary trunk
Page 20
PIG DISSECTION
Groups: Students will work in teams of three (reader, cutter, assistant cutter). Individuals in the group will take pig practical
on the group’s pig. Be careful not to destroy anything from test list. (Keep the thymus!)
PROPER ATTIRE is required for your protection. In keeping with Federal regulations, students are required to wear closed toe
shoes in laboratory. The attire worn in the laboratory work setting should include full coverage of legs and upper arms, hair
restraints for long hair, no dangling jewelry, and no low cut shirts or blouses. During dissections the student should provide
protective eye-wear such as glasses or goggles and gloves (well-fitting kitchen type rather than disposable).
**Optional: lab coat or apron to protect clothing; Vicks VapoRub to block pig odors
No dissection can be done in “Open Lab.” Can only LOOK and not mutilate.
Study details about opening the pig BEFORE you report to lab. MARK THE LAB MANUAL MODIFICATIONS in your lab
manual BEFORE you report to lab. It is important to mark these CHANGES IN YOUR LAB MANUAL. Then, during lab, you
will not make a mistake that could cost you points on your pig practical.
PREPARATION FOR DISSECTION:
1. Roles of dissection team members: a) cutter, b) assistant to cutter, c) reader with lab manual.
2. Protect your dissection station from scratches which are difficult to polish away. Lay down the plastic sheeting found in the
lower cabinet at your workstation over the area where the dissecting pan will be placed.
3. Obtain your dissection pan from a lower student cabinet in your group area.
4. Label 2 tags: student names, class time using Sharpie. One tag will be placed on pig’s leg, one will be kept to put on outer bag
before storage.
5. Obtain pig.
6. Place pig in dissection pan.
7. Cut 2 pieces of string (one for each set of legs), tie string on one leg, wrap under the pan and tie on the opposite leg (this is
to keep the pig secure in the pan).
5. Instructor will give instructions for the lab and then turn on the exhaust fan.
For future dissections, you will:

Remove the pig from the wet bag.

Save this bag for storage of the pig.

The preservative fluid from the bag should be dumped down the sink followed by lots of cold water to remove the fluid
from the plumbing trap so we do not have to breathe this chemical.
Procedure for Storage of Pig:
1. Spray down the pig both externally and internally so that all tissues are moist. Leave strings on legs attached.
2. Place your pig in your inner (wet) plastic bag. Keep it laying LONG to fit storage tray.
3. Expel all air from bag.
4. Fold over the top of the bag to create a water tight closure. Secure with a twist tie.
5. Place bagged pig in a second (dry) plastic bag. Fold over top of bag and secure with a twist tie that has the second labeled
tag attached.
6. Store the pig in the plastic pan that you have labeled with your names. The plastic pan is then stored in the cabinet indicated
by your instructor.
CLEAN dissection pan and tools with soap and water (hot water at back wall sinks), then rinse with alcohol,
Dry tools before returning them to the plastic bag in your assigned student drawers.
BIOHAZARD - PIG PARTS GO IN BIOHAZARD CONTAINER, EVERYTHING ELSE (GLOVES, PAPER TOWEL, ETC) CAN
GO IN REGULAR TRASH.
Page 21
Identify the sex of your pig.
Pharynx: Make deep cuts (4 – 6 cm.) to expose epiglottis.
OPENING THE PIG:
o THORACIC INCISIONS:

1) Locate the cuts already found in skin at the neck region of you pig. This was where the latex was
injected into the pig’s arteries and veins. EXTEND this cut to the midline of the neck.

2) Insert the mall probe in under the skin and sternum (breast bone) to free any attachments in the
path of your incisions.

3) Use the large bandage scissors to cut the costal cartilage along one side of the sternum until you
feel the resistance from the diaphragm.

**DO NOT separate the body wall from the rib cage as if you were skinning it.

4) Open the left side of the neck along the line of the clavicle toward the left forelimb. This will help
you identify major vessels in neck and to forelimb.

5) Now that you have opened the pig’s thoracic cavity toward the diaphragm, turn the pig around and
extend the mid-ventral incision up into the neck region toward the chin. Again provide access by
loosening tissue under the skin with your mall probe.
o ABDOMINAL INCISIONS:

6) Turn the pig back around so that you work toward the abdominal cavity.

7) Pierce the diaphragm (with the mall probe) and continue.

8) Lift the ventral abdominal wall with the mall probe before cutting it with the bandage scissors.
Notice thinness of the abdominal region of the body wall. Be careful to keep lower blade up close
to the body wall and not ripping into

deeper organs. Avoid cutting too deeply

9) See p. 379 to make the horse shoe cut around the umbilical cord and the male genital opening.

10) Cut the body wall at an angle along the groin. Do this on both sides.

11) Locate the umbilical vein. Tie a knot around the middle of this vein. Cut the vein near the tie. This
will prevent tearing this vein on your test list.

12) Drain out the fluid.

13) Find the diaphragm. Carefully cut the diaphragm away from the body wall. This will preserve the
diaphragm in one piece and also free it from its attachment to the body wall.
o To provide easier access to thoracic organs and vessels, use bone cutters (diagonals) to cut the ribs at the
backbone: Roll the lungs to the opposite side and place the straight edge of the bone cutter close to the
vertebra and snip each of the 12 ribs on one side. Roll the lungs over to the opposite direction and repeat .
NECK REGION: thymus, larynx, trachea, esophagus, thyroid
THORACIC CAVITY: pericardial sac, heart, lungs (lobes of R and L lung)


HEART AND LUNGS: -- fetal pig heart- Note only two vessels from the aortic arch (correct names: innominate artery
(not brachiocephalic artery as in human- I will hold you for human names only) and L subclavian artery). Note the aortic
duct or ductus arteriosus which connects pulmonary trunk and aorta in fetal circulation – difficult to locate so do not
attempt in first day of lab.
VESSELS – identify all of the vessels listed
ABDOMINAL CAVITY – if brownish material appears, rinse it out with the Carosafe fluid. NEVER allow WATER to touch your
pig. Water will leach out the preservative and anti-fungal agent. Believe me, you do not want to lose that protection.
-
locate: all organs structures listed
–
Does the pig have an appendix off of its caecum?
URINARY SYSTEM

Pig kidney: expose the pig kidney. Do not dissect or remove the kidney itself. Study using the model in the lab.

Identify in pig: ureters, urinary bladder, urethra as it exits the bladder, peritoneum

Study structures and functions on the kidney modeland the nephron model
Page 22
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Compare the male and female reproductive tracts
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Do NOT remove respiratory system.

How many lobes in pig’s R and L lung?
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Do Not open the stomach to observe the rough rugae.

Do Not cut the mesenteries holding the small intestine.

Do Not open the intestines
VESSELS – identify all of the vessels listed
_______________________
Differences between fetal pig and human: Check the torso model in the lab and the figure. List 4 differences (check out the
aortic arch and vessels,lungs, appendix, large intestine).
Page 23
THE MICROSCOPE
Parts of the binocular compound microscope
 Identify parts, know their functions:
o Ocular, diopter adjustment, ocular micrometer, pointer, body tube or head, revolving nose piece,
objectives (scanning, low-power, high-power, oil immersion), arm, coarse adjustment knob, fine
adjustment knob, base, light source, iris diaphragm, iris diaphragm lever, condenser, condenser
height control knob, pull-out phase adapter, stage, graduated mechanical stage controls, power
switch, electrical cord, plug.
Computation of total magnification of specimen being viewed:
 Magnification = ocular x objective (ocular on this scope is 10X)
 Scanning (red band)
4X x 10X = 40X
 Low-power (yellow band)
10X x 10X = 100X
 High-power (blue band)
40X x 10X = 400X
 Oil immersion (white band)
100X x 10X = 1000X
Care and handling of microscope:
Report any problems with your microscope to your instructor IMMEDIATELY.
1. Locate your microscope by number in the cabinet. Carry with two hands, one under base and other
around the arm. Keep the microscope near your body.
2. Place scope gently on the lab table on top of plastic sheet.
3. Do not disassemble your microscope or reorient the oculars.
4. Keep the scope and lens systems clean.
 Clean lens with lens paper (in drawer)
 Clean stage and slides with Kim wipes (on lab bench)

Storage of your microscope: This is the way microscopes are to be stored in the cabinet.
 Scanning objective (4X with red band) in position!
 Power switch off.
 No slide left on the stage.
 All lenses and the stage must be clean.
 Graduated mechanical stage centered.
 Stage in the full down position. (Do not lower the condenser.)
 Cord wrapped around the cord holder.
 Plastic dust cover is on.
 The microscope sets above its number on the cabinet shelf.
Focusing the Microscope:
 Clean slide to be viewed. Wipe gently with a Kimwipe. If oily, place a few drops of 70% ethyl alcohol onto
the Kimwipe and gently wipe the cover slip and bottomof slide. Never place alcohol directly onto a prepared
slide.
 Place the slide down on the front of the stage with the label facing up and in position to be read, use stage
clip to hold slide in position
 Turn on the light to sufficient intensity to produce a WHITE background (not yellowish). Note that the
condenser is in the full up position. Locate the condenser height control knob forward from course / fine
adjustment knobs.
 Use the course adjustment knob to bring the slide into focus.
Page 24
Use the iris diaphragm lever to adjust the amount of light striking your specimen. More light will be needed
for preserved and stained slides and at higher magnifications. Less light is required for thin preparations
and unstained slides. Remember the condenser remains in its full uppermost position.
Moving to next higher magnification power
 Center the specimen to be examined further in the CENTER of the field of view. These microscopes are
parfocal. This means that the specimen is focus at the center of the field of view will be in partial focus as
the next power.
 Grasp the revolving nosepiece and rotate it to the next power lens (low power – yellow band).
 Only minor adjustment with the coarse adjustment (for scanning and low-power objectives ONLY), then
fine adjustment (no more that 2 revolutions) if needed.
Again center the specimen being viewed and rotate nosepiece to next power (high power – blue band).
Focus using ONLY fine adjustment.
 To use the 100X objective, you need to add a drop of immersion oil on the slide.
After observations have been completed:
 Move the revolving nosepiece to low and then to scanning. Do not drag the oil immersion objective (longest
objective) across the cover slip – scratching it !
 Open the spring stage clip and slide the microscope slide out to the forward edge of the stage.
 Return the clean slide to where you obtained it (your slide box or the side counter).
 Do not lower the stage or turn off the light if you have another slide to view.
 View other slides that are assigned.
 After last slide of the day is finished, prepare the microscope for storage as outlined
Oil immersion techniques: (used to visualize bacteria)
 Focus the slide as before under the scanning, low power, and high power objectives. Now the stage and
lighting are set for the best resolution of the specimen.
 DO NOT lower stage!
 Rotate the revolving nosepiece back the way you came to high (back to low, then to scanning). Do not drag
the long oil immersion objective over the cover slip.
 Place a drop of immersion oil (from your drawer) on the cover slip where the light is passing through the
slide. Be careful not to allow any oil to flow over the edge of the slide onto the condenser lens or onto the
stage.
 Looking from the side of your scope, visually confirm that the objective will not touch the cover slip of the
slide. Rotate the revolving nosepiece DIRECTLY from Scanning (4X) objective to the 100X objective. You
can see the oil come into contact with the 100X objective.
 Focus using the fine adjustment knob.
 You may need more light. Move the iris diaphragm lever to allow more light on the slide.
 After study of specimen is complete, turn the revolving nosepiece DIRECTLY from 100X objective to the
4X objective. This avoids bringing other long lenses in contact with the oil.
 Open the spring stage clip and remove slide forward toward the edge of the stage.
 CLEAN the slide – Remove most of the oil by blotting cover slip with a Kimwipe, add some 70% ethyl alcohol
on a clean Kimwipe and remove any remaining oily residue. Return clean slide to where you obtained it (your
slide box or side counter)
 CLEAN the 100X objective if you are through using oil for this lab session. Blot (do NOT rub) the objective
with a clean Kimwipe. Use lens paper to polish the 100X lens until no oily residue is observed on the Kimwipe.
Use lens paper to check other objectives to be sure no oil is on them.
***Never use any liquid to clean you microscope lenses.***

Using phase contrast optics:
This type of microscopy is used when live, unstained specimens are to be viewed. (Micro Lab)
 Focus the specimen as you have been instructed above on 4X, 10X, and 40X.
Page 25


When you are in best focus on high power (40X objective), push the phase ring holder (under stage) into
the path of light. Make sure the condenser is raised to its highest position. Also, make sure the lever
controlling the amount of light entering the condenser is fully open. You may also have to turn the light
source on full.
Only the high power (40X) objective may be used with the phase contrast optics.
Using dark field optics:
This type of microscopy is used when studying diatoms and algae. (Micro Lab)
 Obtain a dark field adapter. Your lab instructor who will show you where to obtain the adapter numbered
for your microscope.
 Remove the blue filter and snap it onto the bottom of the adapter.
 Snap the top of the adapter to the bottom of the condenser.
 Focus normally. Your best resolution will be at low power. Note the different colors.
Measurement of a specimen using the microscope:
Use the ocular micrometer – the small “ruler” in the right eyepiece.
For small specimens which will fit under the ocular micrometer:
 Position ocular micrometer over specimen. Move the slide on stage to position the specimen. You can move
the ocular micrometer by rotating the ocular. The size of the specimen can be determined by multiplying
the number of ocular micrometer spaces covered by the specimen by the conversion factor for that
objective as given in the following:
o OBJECTIVE OCULAR MICROMETER CONVERSION FACTOR
 Scanning
25 microns (micrometers)
 Low-power
10 microns
 High-power
2.5 microns
 Oil immersion
1.0 microns
Page 26