Vocabulary:
Theory, research, and promising
practices
Michael C. McKenna
Today’s Goals




Learn about how children acquire
word meanings
Examine research findings on
vocabulary instruction
Discuss scientifically-based
instructional approaches
practice making a vocab. lesson
Is the word vocabulary
in your vocabulary?
What is vocabulary?
Modality
Domain







Speaking vocabulary
Listening vocabulary
Reading vocabulary
Writing vocabulary
General vocabulary
Technical vocabulary
Meaning vocabulary
What is vocabulary?
Modality
Domain







Speaking vocabulary
Listening vocabulary
Reading vocabulary
Writing vocabulary
General vocabulary
Technical vocabulary
Meaning vocabulary
What is vocabulary?
Modality
Domain







Speaking vocabulary
Listening vocabulary
Reading vocabulary
Writing vocabulary
General vocabulary
Technical vocabulary
Meaning vocabulary
What is vocabulary?
Modality
Domain







Speaking vocabulary
Listening vocabulary
Reading vocabulary
Writing vocabulary
General vocabulary
Technical vocabulary
Meaning vocabulary
What is vocabulary?
Modality
Domain







Speaking vocabulary
Listening vocabulary
Reading vocabulary
Writing vocabulary
General vocabulary
Technical vocabulary
Meaning vocabulary
1755
Dictionary of the
English Language
1755
Dictionary of the
English Language
114,000 words
1755
Dictionary of the
English Language
114,000 words
impertransibility
queck
nould
1755
Dictionary of the
English Language
114,000 words
2005
Oxford English
Dictionary (3rd ed.)
1755
Dictionary of the
English Language
114,000 words
2005
Oxford English
Dictionary (3rd ed.)
660,000+ words
webcam
cyberphobic
doh
2005
Oxford English
Dictionary (3rd ed.)
660,000+ words
English users follow set rules for
coining new words, thus adding
greatly to the number of potential
words in the language.
English users follow set rules for
coining new words, thus adding
greatly to the number of potential
words in the language.
The postman likes our street
because it is dogless.
Are you a logophile?
Are you a logophile?
words
A Vocabulary Riddle
To comprehend what we read, at least
95% of the words must be recognized
automatically.
How is this possible given the number of
words in English?
50K
45,000
40K
30K
17,000
20K
10K
0
5,000
1,500
K
12
Oral vocabulary at the end of first
grade is a significant predictor of
comprehension ten years later.
Cunningham, A.E., & Stanovich, K.E. (1997). Early reading
acquisition and its relation to experience and ability 10
years later. Developmental Psychology, 33, 934-945.
Why is a large vocabulary
associated with good
comprehension?
The Instrumental Hypothesis
Vocabulary aids comprehension by
providing the reader with a tool, or
instrument.
The Knowledge Hypothesis
It’s not so much the words themselves
that help, but the knowledge they
represent.
The Aptitude Hypothesis
Comprehension and vocabulary are
correlated “not because one causes
the other, but because both reflect a
more general underlying verbal
aptitude.”
– Stahl & Nagy (2005)
The Access Hypothesis
A larger vocabulary means



a deeper understanding of words
(including nuances of meaning)
quicker access to words in the
lexicon
flexibility in deciding among
multiple meanings
The Reciprocal Hypothesis
Having a bigger
vocabulary makes
you a better reader.
Reading more
gives you a bigger
vocabulary
Being a better reader
makes it possible for
you to read more
Four Obstacles to Acquiring a
Large Vocabulary
1. The number of words in English is very
large.
2. Academic English differs from the kind
of English used at home.
3. Word knowledge involves far more than
learning definitions.
4. Sources of information about words are
often hard to use or unhelpful.
– Stahl & Nagy (2005)
How do we learn words
from experiences?
gavagai
An aborigine points to a running rabbit
and says “Gavagai.” Can you infer the
word’s meaning?
Each encounter with a word helps
a child narrow its meaning. For
example, if he next hears the word
gavagai used to refer to a sitting
rabbit, the child will infer that
running is not connected with the
meaning.
Young children learn word meanings
from one-on-one interactions with
parents and siblings. These
interactions may be rich or poor.
Consider two examples based on
Hart and Risley’s (1995) comparison
of families of different socioeconomic
levels.
Yeah.
Do I have to
eat these?
“Motherese”
Yes, because
they have
vitamins that
will help you
grow and get
stronger.
Do I have to
eat these?
What does it mean
to know a word?
A Continuum of Word Knowledge
No knowledge
A vague sense of the meaning
Narrow knowledge with aid of context
Good knowledge but shaky recall
Rich, decontextualized knowledge,
connected to other word meanings
A Continuum of Word Knowledge
No knowledge
A vague sense of the meaning
Narrow knowledge with aid of context
Good knowledge but shaky recall
Rich, decontextualized knowledge,
connected to other word meanings
The Reading System (Adams)
Context
Processor
Meaning
Processor
Orthographic
Processor
Reading
Writing
Phonological
Processor
Speech
The Reading System (Adams)
Context
Processor
Lexicon
Meaning
Processor
Orthographic
Processor
Reading
Writing
Phonological
Processor
Speech
lexicon
That part of long-term memory
devoted to word knowledge
How is a word stored
in the lexicon?
cat
cat
c-a-t
/kat/
“meow”
4 legs
pet
cat
c-a-t
/kat/
animal
“meow”
cat
4 legs
c-a-t
/kat/
pet
lion
animal
mammal
“meow”
cat
4 legs
c-a-t
/kat/
pet
lion
animal
mammal
“meow”
cat
4 legs
c-a-t
/kat/
pet
lion
animal
mammal
“meow”
dog
cat
4 legs
c-a-t
/kat/
pet
lion
animal
mammal
“meow”
dog
cat
4 legs
c-a-t
/kat/
pet
lion
animal
mammal
“meow”
dog
cat
4 legs
c-a-t
/kat/
pet
lion
Dual Coding Theory
Two systems are involved in learning words.
One contains verbal information, the other nonverbal (images). When we learn a word, realworld images that we associate with the concept
are also stored. Accessing a word in the lexicon
therefore involves both the verbal system and
non-verbal (imagery) system.
~ Moral ~
When teaching new words, use pictures and
other images where possible.
animal
mammal
“meow”
dog
cat
4 legs
c-a-t
/kat/
pet
lion
The Nonverbal
(Imagery) System
New meanings and even new
pronunciations of a word may be
added to a child’s lexicon over time.
próduce
prodúce
produce
Raw veggies
to make
lean
To rest
one
object
against
another
K
1
2
3
4
To rely on
another
person
for
support
5
6
7
8 •••
Biemiller, A. (2004). Teaching vocabulary in the primary grades.In J.F. Baumann &
E.J. Kame’enui (Eds.), Vocabulary instruction: Research to practice (pp. 2840). New York: Guilford.
Is wide reading enough?
Why Wide Reading
Is Enough
Vocabulary size and
the amount a child
reads are correlated.
Direct instruction
cannot possibly
account for the number
of word meanings
children acquire.
Why Wide Reading
Is Not Enough
Context is generally
unreliable as a means
of inferring word
meanings.
Most words occur too
infrequently to provide
the number of
exposures needed to
learn them.
Marzano, R.J. (2004). The developing vision of vocabulary instruction. In J.F.
Baumann & E.J. Kame’enui (Eds.), Vocabulary instruction: Research to
practice (pp. 100-117). New York: Guilford.
“There is no obvious reason why
direct vocabulary instruction and
wide reading cannot work in
tandem.”
– Marzano (2004, p. 112)
Robert
Marzano
The Vocabulary Catch-22
Children need to learn more words to
read well, but they need to read well to
learn more words.
McKenna, M.C. (2004). Teaching vocabulary to struggling older readers.
Perspectives, 30(1), 13-16.
What are some of the
guiding principles of
teaching vocabulary?
Guiding Principle
Preteach key words to
improve comprehension.
In 1367, Marain and the settlements
ended a seven-year war with the
Langurians and Pitoks. As a result of this
war, Languria was driven out of East
Bacol. Marain would now rule Laman and
the other lands that once belonged to
Languria. This brought peace to the
Bacolean settlements. The settlers no
longer had to worry about attacks from
Laman. The Bacoleans were happy to be
part of Marain in 1367. Yet a dozen years
later, these same people would be
fighting the Marish for independence, or
freedom from United Marain’s rule.
In 1763, Britain and the colonies
ended a seven-year war with the French
and Indians. As a result of this war,
France was driven out of North America.
Britain would now rule Canada and the
other lands that once belonged to France.
This brought peace to the American
colonies. The settlers no longer had to
worry about attacks from Canada. The
Americans were happy to be part of
Britain in 1763. Yet a dozen years later,
these same people would be fighting the
British for independence, or freedom from
Great Britain’s rule.
Guiding Principle
Provide more than definitions.
WORD
Stimulus
=
DEFINITION
Response
WORD
=
DEFINITION
Stimulus
Response
truncate
“to cut off”
WORD
=
DEFINITION
Stimulus
Response
truncate
“to cut off”
“She truncated the lights.”
Guiding Principle
Combine definitions and
contextual examples.
Guiding Principle
Minimize rote copying of
definitions.
Guiding Principle
Introduce new words in
related clusters.
antennae
thorax
leg
wing
abdomen
In content areas,
clustering words is natural!
But general vocabulary words can
be clustered if you work at it!
Guiding Principle
Provide brief, periodic review.
A Thought Experiment
Group 1
• Receives 1 hour of direct instruction on
20 new words
• Spends 1 full hour of intense review on
all 20 words
• This hour is uninterrupted.
Group 2
Group 2
• Receives 1 hour of direct instruction on
20 new words
• Spends 1 full hour of intense review on
all 20 words
Group 2
• Receives 1 hour of direct instruction on
20 new words
• Spends 1 full hour of intense review on
all 20 words
• This hour is broken into 6 10-minute
sessions, 1 per month for 6 months.
Assuming that no one
encountered any of the 20
words again, which group
would do better on a test
after a delay of 10 years?
Massed
vs.
Distributed
Practice
What did the National
Reading Panel conclude
about teaching
vocabulary?
NRP Findings on Vocabulary




Teaching vocabulary improves general
comprehension ability.
Preteaching vocabulary helps both word learning
and comprehension of a selection.
Much vocabulary is acquired through incidental
exposure.
Repeated exposures in a variety of contexts are
important.
NRP Findings on Vocabulary




A combination of definitions and contextual
examples works better than either one alone.
Many instructional methods can be effective in
teaching vocabulary.
Instructional methods should result in active
engagement.
Both direct and indirect methods should be
used.
NRP Findings on Vocabulary



The more connections that are made to
a word, the better the word tends to be
learned.
Computer applications can be effective.
The effectiveness of some instructional
methods depends on the age or ability
of the children.
What the NRP said they didn’t know
about vocabulary instruction





Which methods work best with students of different ages
and abilities?
How can technology best be used to teach vocabulary?
How is vocabulary best integrated with comprehension
instruction?
What combinations of instructional methods tend to work
best?
What are the best ways to assess vocabulary?
To what extent do you see these
findings reflected in your core
materials?
What are some of the
most effective ways of
teaching vocabulary?
Some Research-Based Techniques
 Read-Alouds
 Semantic Feature Analysis
 Graphic Organizers
 List-Group-Label
 Semantic Maps (word webs)
 Word Lines
 Word Sorts
 Possible Sentences
Read-Alouds
Planning a Read-Aloud
 Choose engaging, well-illustrated books.
 A number of words should be unknown to about
half the students.
 Choose 3 target words that are important for
comprehension but likely to be unfamiliar.
 Keep track of the words you choose.
 Plan to repeat the read-aloud.
 Plan multiple exposures in the days following.
Conducting a Read-Aloud
 Be “performance oriented”; read with expression.
 Include “rich, dialogic discussion.”
 Activate prior knowledge.
 Link the story to experiences of students.
 Elicit responses from students.
 Give direct, clear, and simple instruction in word
meanings before the read-aloud.
 Give a sentence context from the story in
advance.
 Discuss words before and after the story.
 Embed quick definitions while reading. (Biemiller)
 Do not display pictures while reading (Beck et al.)
Warning!
Spending too much time discussing
read-alouds may detract from valuable
reading practice.
– Stahl (1998).
A Closer Look at Definitions
golf
golf n.
1. a good walk spoiled
(Mark Twain)
2. a game in which a player using
special clubs attempts to sink
a ball with as few strokes as
possible into each of the 9 or
18 successive holes on a
course (Webster)
a game in which a player
using special clubs attempts
to sink a ball with as few
strokes as possible into each
of the 9 or 18 successive
holes on a course
class
distinguishing features
a game in which a player
using special clubs attempts
to sink a ball with as few
strokes as possible into each
of the 9 or 18 successive
holes on a course
class
distinguishing features
a game in which a player
using special clubs attempts
to sink a ball with as few
strokes as possible into each
of the 9 or 18 successive
holes on a course
class
distinguishing features
Aristotle
Semantic Feature
Analysis
humans
adult
female
woman
+
+
man
+
o
girl
o
+
boy
o
o
games
clubs
ball o
golf
+
+
hockey
+
o
basketball
o
+
games
clubs
ball o
golf
+
+
hockey
+
o
basketball
o
+
games
clubs
ball
golf
+
+
hockey
+
o
basketball
o
+
games
clubs
ball
golf
+
+
hockey
+
o
basketball
o
+
games
clubs
ball
golf
+
+
hockey
+
o
basketball
o
+
games
clubs
ball
golf
+
+
hockey
+
o
basketball
o
+
games
clubs
ball
golf
+
+
hockey
+
o
basketball
o
+
games
clubs
ball
golf
+
+
hockey
+
o
basketball
o
+
games
clubs
ball
golf
+
+
hockey
+
o
basketball
o
+
popinary
popinary
“a fry cook”
popinary
“a fry cook”
Mrs. Byrne's Dictionary of Unusual, Obscure, and Preposterous
Words: Gathered from Numerous and Diverse Authoritative Sources
cooks
fries
things
makes
salads
bakes
popinary
+
o
o
chef
+
+
+
baker
+
o
+
cooks
fries
things
makes
salads
bakes
popinary
+
o
o
chef
+
+
+
baker
+
o
+
cooks
fries
things
makes
salads
bakes
popinary
+
o
o
chef
+
+
+
baker
+
o
+
cooks
fries
things
makes
salads
bakes
popinary
+
o
o
chef
+
+
+
baker
+
o
+
cooks
fries
things
makes
salads
bakes
popinary
+
o
o
chef
+
+
+
baker
+
o
+
cooks
fries
things
makes
salads
bakes
popinary
+
o
o
chef
+
+
+
baker
+
o
+
cooks
fries
things
makes
salads
bakes
popinary
+
o
o
chef
+
+
+
baker
+
o
+
cooks
fries
things
makes
salads
bakes
popinary
+
o
o
chef
+
+
+
baker
+
o
+
cooks
fries
things
makes
salads
bakes
popinary
+
o
o
chef
+
+
+
baker
+
o
+
cooks
fries
things
makes
salads
bakes
popinary
+
o
o
chef
+
+
+
baker
+
o
+
cooks
fries
things
makes
salads
bakes
popinary
+
o
o
chef
+
+
+
baker
+
+
+
cooks
fries
things
makes
salads
bakes
popinary
+
o
o
chef
+
+
+
baker
s
+
+
Characters
Frog
Toad
Curious George
Wise Adventurous
Graphic Organizers
A graphic organizer is a diagram
that shows how key terms are
related.
What’s so great about them?
What’s so great about them?
They help kids “see” abstract content.
There is little to “read.”
They are easy to construct and discuss.
Technical terms can be taught in clusters.
They enhance recall and understanding.
They have an impressive research base.
Shakespearean Tragedy
Act 1
Act 2
Act 3
Act 4
Act 5
Exposition
Complication
Climax
Resolution
Conclusion
Exposition
Complication
Climax
Resolution
Conclusion
Exposition
Complication
Climax
Resolution
Conclusion
Complication
Exposition
Complication
Climax
Resolution
Conclusion
Climax
Complication
Exposition
Complication
Climax
Resolution
Conclusion
Climax
Complication
Exposition
Complication
Resolution
Climax
Resolution
Conclusion
Rising
Action
Climax
Complication
Exposition
Complication
Resolution
Climax
Resolution
Conclusion
Rising
Action
Climax
Complication
Exposition
Falling
Action
Complication
Resolution
Climax
Resolution
Conclusion
egg
adult
larva
pupa
How to Find the Area of a Triangle
No
Right
triangle?
Multiply
legs
Determine
height
Multiply
by base
Yes
Divide
by 2
Tree Diagrams
Musical Instruments
Musical Instruments
wind
nonwind
Musical Instruments
wind
brass
nonwind
woodwind
Musical Instruments
wind
brass
nonwind
woodwind
string
percussion
Musical Instruments
wind
brass
trumpet
nonwind
woodwind
clarinet
string
violin
percussion
drum
Venn Diagrams
Frog and Toad
Curious George
No people
Animal
Characters
Animals
talk
Could
happen
Blue People
Tall People
Thin People
Blue People
Tall People
Thin People
Blue People
Tall People
Thin People
drugs
stimulants
depressants
alcohol
barbituates
caffeine
dexadrine
drugs
stimulants
depressants
caffeine
dexadrine
alcohol
barbituates
drugs
stimulants
depressants
caffeine dexadrine
alcohol barbituates
antennae
thorax
leg
wing
abdomen
Labeled Picture
Sociograms
HH
H
P
P
H
P
P
P
H
P
P
P
P
Sara
Delano
(1855-1941)
James
Roosevelt
(1828-1900)
Elliott
Roosevelt
(1860?-94)
Franklin
Delano
Roosevelt
(1882-1945)
Anna
b. 1906
James
b. 1907
Anna
Hall
(1863-92)
Anna
Eleanor
Roosevelt
(1884-1962)
Elliott
b. 1910
FDR, Jr.
b. 1914
John
b. 1916
List-Group-Label
Hilda Taba
List
Students brainstorm all the words they
can recall at the end of a unit.
Group
Students suggest logical ways to group
the words.
Label
Students suggest a label for each
group they form.
List
Students brainstorm all the words they
can recall at the end of a unit.
Group
Students suggest logical ways to group
the words.
Label
Students suggest a label for each
group they form.
List
Students brainstorm all the words they
can recall at the end of a unit.
Group
Students suggest logical ways to group
the words.
Label
Students suggest a label for each
group they form.
no legs
boa
venom
garter
cobra
fang
scales
coral
tail
rattle
copperhead
trees
holes
ground
no legs
boa
venom
garter
cobra
fang
scales
coral
tail
rattle
copperhead
trees
holes
ground
no legs
boa
venom
garter
cobra
fang
scales
coral
tail
rattle
copperhead
trees
holes
ground
Kinds of Snakes
garter
boa
copperhead
cobra
coral
Things Snakes Might Have
rattle
scales
fang
no legs
venom
tail
Where Snakes Are Found
trees
holes
ground
no legs
boa
venom
garter
cobra
fang
scales
coral
tail
rattle
copperhead
trees
holes
ground
Kinds of Snakes
garter
boa
copperhead
cobra
coral
Things Snakes Might Have
rattle
scales
fang
no legs
venom
tail
Where Snakes Are Found
trees
holes
ground
Semantic Maps
(Word Webs)
Brainstorming
Students offer ideas related to a topic.
Mapping
Teacher and students form categories
and map the words into a diagram.
Reading
Students read a nonfiction selection.
Completing the Map
Teacher and students revisit the map
and together refine and expand it.
no legs
boa
venom
garter
cobra
fang
scales
coral
tail
rattle
copperhead
trees
holes
ground
Kinds of Snakes
garter
boa
copperhead
cobra
coral
Things Snakes Might Have
rattle
scales
fang
no legs
venom
tail
Where Snakes Are Found
trees
holes
ground
rattle
scales
fang
no legs
venom
tail
Things Snakes
Might Have
Snakes
Kinds
garter
boa
copperhead
cobra
coral
Where
trees
holes
ground
Semantic maps have the
advantage of mirroring how
words are stored in the lexicon.
animal
mammal
“meow”
dog
cat
4 legs
c-a-t
/kat/
pet
lion
Word Lines
hot
cold
hot
tepid
cold
hot
tepid
sweltering
cold
hot
tepid
sweltering
cold
chilly
hot
tepid
sweltering
cold
chilly
Word Sorts
Open Sort
Categories are not given.
thorax
abdomen
wing
adult
egg
pupa
antennae
larva
head
leg
Closed Sort
Parts
Stages
Closed Sort
Parts
Stages
thorax
abdomen
wing
head
leg
antennae
pupa
egg
larva
adult
Possible Sentences
1. Present a list of 8-12 words the
students will encounter in the new
text.
2. Add a few familiar terms.
3. Ask for sentences containing at
least two of the words.
4. Teach the text.
5. Return to the sentences.
6. Together decide whether they are
correct or can be edited to make
them so.
lexicon
syntactic clue
distributed practice
popinary
word
definition
*eponym
*toponym
*portmanteau
Some Research-Based Techniques
 Read-Alouds
 Semantic Feature Analysis
 Graphic Organizers
 List-Group-Label
 Semantic Maps (word webs)
 Web Trees
 Word Lines
 Word Sorts
 Possible Sentences
What do all of these techniques
(except one) have in
common?
1. They involve clusters of related
words.
2. They encourage children to
categorize.
What’s the exception?
Huckleberry Finn
fan-tods
yallerboys
mudcat
Illinois
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Hannibal
Missouri
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Illinois
Kentucky
Tennessee
Arkansas
Mississippi
Louisiana
Hannibal
Missouri
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Illinois
Kentucky
Tennessee
Arkansas
Mississippi
Louisiana
More Suggestions
Echo student talk, using
richer vocabulary.
I wrote this.
Wonderful. I hope
you told me exactly
what you saw on
your trip to the zoo.
“Sprinkle” your
classroom with
vocabulary.
Beck & McKeown (2004)
Talk around
words.
Stahl & Stahl (2004)
Be a Word Wizard!
wary
Tom
Sue
Ed
Juan
Maria
Lakesha
Paul
Jack
scowl ridiculous fortunate
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– Beck & McKeown (2004)
Ask “silly questions.”
– Beck & McKeown (2004)
Would a fortunate person scowl?
Encourage word play
(including teachers!)
Words Named for People
(eponyms)
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einsteinium
teddy bear
boycott
pasteurize
watt
decibel
saxophone
braille
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silhouette
sousaphone
zinnia
sideburns
shrapnel
magnolia
hooligan
gardenia
Words Named for Places
(toponyms)
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bikini
tuxedo
badminton
hamburger
californium
uranium
plutonium
damask
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ottoman
bayonet
cologne
frankfurter
magenta
marathon
tangerine
manila
Words with Unusual Stories
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bazooka
bleachers
blurb
cowlick
crowbar
Dixie
gas
goatee
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googol
gorilla
jeep
jumbo
sandwich
Pacific
serendipity
tank
Blends (Portmanteaus)
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beefalo
bit
brunch
caplet
cockapoo
electrocute
guestimate
infomercial
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jack rabbit
liger
lox
modem
moped
motel
sitcom
skort
More Blends . . .
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slurb
smog
snazzy
splatter
spork (why not
foon?)
• squiggle
• tangelo
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telethon
tiglon
transister
twiddle
zap
zedonk
Acronyms
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scuba
radar
sonar
laser
snafu
fubar
Mnemonics
principle
rule
principal
pal
Connotations
What’s the difference between a fiddle
and a violin?
What can we do increase
children’s vocabularies?
1. Make vocabulary a school-wide goal
 Amend your plan.
 Establish instructional goals.
 Raise consciousness.
 Communicate expectations.
2. Establish teacher study groups
 Organize groups by grade level.
 Provide time for discussion.
 Reward participation.
 Encourage administrator participation.
 Select resource books.
3. Consider supplemental and
intervention programs
 Tie their use to assessments.
 Establish guidelines for use.
 Locate product reviews.
“In the long run, effective intervention
will involve extended vocabulary work
as a normal part the curriculum. (p.
34)
Andy
Biemiller
Biemiller, A. (2004). Teaching vocabulary in the primary grades.In J.F. Baumann &
E.J. Kame’enui (Eds.), Vocabulary instruction: Research to practice (pp. 2840). New York: Guilford.
Suggested References
Baumann, J.F., & Kame’enui, E.J. (2004). Vocabulary
instruction: Research to practice. New York: Guilford.
Bear, D.R., Invernizzi, M., Templeton, S.R., & Johnston, F.
Words their way (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Prentice-Hall.
Beck, I.L., McKeown, M.G., & Kucan, L. (2002). Bringing
words to life: Robust vocabulary instruction. New
York: Guilford.
Nagy, W.E. (1988). Teaching vocabulary to improve reading
comprehension. Newark, DE: IRA.
Stahl, S.A. (1999). Vocabulary development. Cambridge,
MA: Brookline Books.
Stahl, S.A., & Kapinus, B.A. (2001). Word power: What
every educator needs to know about teaching
vocabulary. Washington, DC: NEA.
Stahl, S.A., & Nagy, W.E. (2005). Teaching word meanings.
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.