College Women’s Perceived Barriers
to Reporting Sexual Assault
Rebecca Caldwell
Director of CROSSROADS and CARE
Nathan Lindsay
Director of Student Life Assessment
NASPA Annual Conference
March 15, 2010
Learning Outcomes
As a result of attending this session, participants will:

Learn to use a mixed methods approach to investigate a
sensitive topic—in this case, sexual assault.

Consider the factors that inhibit current college women
from pursuing charges related to sexual assault, as indicated
from both the research literature and the findings of this
study.

Consider how assessment can illuminate the campus-specific
factors that impede students from using on and off-campus
avenues for redress of sexual assault cases.

Learn how the campus-specific factors were shared across
the university, and the resulting action steps.
I think that students are more likely to report a sexual assault
to campus hearing officers than they were 30 years ago.
7%
D
is
ag
w
re
/N
e
ot
A
pp
...
gr
ee
is
a
.
D
on
’t
K
no
ly
tr
on
g
gr
ee
A
D
S
D
i..
no
r
A
gr
ee
4%
A
gr
ee
6.
7%
ei
th
er
5.
ly
4.
N
3.
26% 26%
tr
on
g
2.
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neither Agree nor
Disagree
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Don’t Know/Not
Applicable
S
1.
30%
I think that students are more likely to report a
sexual assault to police than they were 30 years ago.
7%
D
is
ag
w
re
/N
e
ot
A
pp
...
gr
ee
is
a
.
D
on
’t
K
no
ly
tr
on
g
gr
ee
A
D
S
D
i..
no
r
A
gr
ee
4%
A
gr
ee
6.
7%
ei
th
er
5.
ly
4.
N
3.
26% 26%
tr
on
g
2.
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neither Agree nor
Disagree
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Don’t Know/Not
Applicable
S
1.
30%
Our campus does a good job of helping students to
feel comfortable in reporting a sexual assault.
7%
D
is
ag
w
re
/N
e
ot
A
pp
...
gr
ee
is
a
.
D
on
’t
K
no
ly
tr
on
g
gr
ee
A
D
S
D
i..
no
r
A
gr
ee
4%
A
gr
ee
6.
7%
ei
th
er
5.
ly
4.
N
3.
26% 26%
tr
on
g
2.
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neither Agree nor
Disagree
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Don’t Know/Not
Applicable
S
1.
30%
What is the most important thing campuses can do to
encourage students to report sexual assaults?
r
th
e
O
m
en
is
h
pu
n
se
cr
ea
t..
.
...
th
a
en
ts
at
e
ss
ea
R
In
a
ur
e
vi
st
ud
ct
im
ad
vo
c
pr
...
na
l
tio
ir
e
H
5.
uc
a
4.
ed
3.
et
te
r
2.
Better educational
programming
Hire a victim advocate
Reassure students that
there is confidentiality
in the judicial process
Increase punishments
for offenders
Other
B
1.
20% 20% 20% 20% 20%
Introduction
•
•
•
•
•
Sexual assault is a highly underreported crime.
Up to 25% of women will experience an
attempted or completed sexual assault.
Fewer than 5% will report that assault to police.
A year-long investigation by the Center for
Public Integrity criticizes campus discipline.
Campuses need to know about assaults to
arrest perpetrators, to insure that victims know
about services, and for planning and policy
decisions.
(Catalano, 2006,Ruch, Coyne, & Perrone, 2000, Fisher et al., 2003)
What was the impact of the Center for Public
Integrity report on your work?
ha
ve
m
D
a
or
on
...
e
’t
in
K
fo
no
rm
w
...
/N
ot
A
pp
...
d.
..
e
W
an
t
in
g
in
g
in
k
g
Th
el
in
Fe
“w
ac
.
pr
et
ty
ch
ar
at
tio
n
go
o
..
.
m
p.
ca
on
g
6.
tr
a
5.
ta
m
4.
17% 17% 17% 17% 17% 17%
Fr
us
3.
te
re
s
2.
Interest among campus
administrators
Frustration at
characterization of
campuses
Feeling pretty good
about your campus
Thinking “we have a lot
of work to do!”
Wanting more
information and
resources
Don’t Know/Not
Applicable
In
1.
Literature Review
•
Significant factors in not reporting sexual assaults by
college women include:
▫ Lack of confidentiality
▫ Guilt & self-blame
▫ Embarrassment & shame
▫ Fear of not being believed
▫ Fear of retaliation
▫ Fear of being blamed or judged
▫ Confusion over what constitutes sexual assault
▫ Desire to not cause significant consequences to an
acquaintance by labeling him a “rapist’
▫ Negative reaction to first disclosure, usually a friend
(Fisher et al., 2000, Nasta et al., 2005, Fisher et al., 2003, Sable et al., 2006, Walsh et al., 2010,
Orchowski, Meyer, & Gidycz, 2010, Ahern, 2006, Filipas & Ullman, 2001, Koss et al., 1987)
Methodology
The study consisted of three main
parts:
Part 1
 A review of the campus sexual assault policy
through a self-study guide
Part 2
 A series of questions were included in a
biannual campus violence survey
Part 3
 Focus groups were conducted
Part I: Policy Self-Study/Review
Committee of students convened/guided by
Women’s Studies & Resource Center
 Completed SAFER student review of campus
policies and resources process.
 A diverse group of students independently
found the information and made conclusions.
Campus personnel reviewed it for accuracy
before posting.
 Other Sources for Review: Model Policies,
ACHA Assessment Tool, tabletop exercises.

Student Self-Study Recommendations
Awareness of policy needs to be
increased among students.
 Although discussion of past sexual history
is barred at hearings, victim’s dress is also
suggested.
 An amnesty policy should be considered,
i.e. ,victims immune to being held
accountable for other policy violations
(such as alcohol consumption).

Do you have an amnesty policy for sexual
assault victims?
25% 25% 25% 25%
A
pp
...
o
on
e
W
D
us
e
’t
K
no
am
ne
st
y
w
/N
ot
as
a.
N
..
y
po
lic
rit
te
n
w
4.
,a
3.
es
2.
Yes, a written policy
We use amnesty as
an informal practice
No
Don’t Know/Not
Applicable
Y
1.
Part II: Quantitative Data Collection
Specific questions about perceptions of
services were added to a biannual
violence survey.
 Survey was molded by the suggestions of
a group of students, faculty, & staff.
 Used recognizable validated instruments
for credibility and national comparison
(when available)

Do you have campus quantitative data about
interpersonal violence/violence against women issues?
l..
.
o
A
pp
N
ot
h.
.
w
/N
ot
a
te
d
’t
K
no
da
t
D
on
d
m
ite
Li
a
,
fr
om
...
in
st
...
n
va
l
id
a
m
eg
ro
w
es
Y
5.
ho
4.
20% 20% 20% 20% 20%
,a
3.
es
2.
Yes, a homegrown
measure
Yes, a validated
instrument
Limited data from
other surveys (e.g.,
NCHA survey)
No
Don’t Know/Not
Applicable
Y
1.
Focal Items
Awareness of services
 Feeling competent to refer to resources
 Measurement of bystander behaviors
 Experiences of sexual assault, relationship
abuse, stalking, and harassment
 Opinions about campus and criminal
justice systems

Awareness of Resources
“If a student is a victim of sexual assault, what resources are available
to them?”
Report incident without giving
name
66.1
68.8
Press charges in campus
conduct system
77.4
67.9
Press criminal charges by
themselves
77.4
72.5
University assistance them in
pressing criminal charges
Men
Women
64.5
71.1
88.7
94
Counseling
Ability to ask for changes in
classes or housing assignments
82.3
85.8
0
20
40
60
80
100
Quantitative Results
In response to whether or not students would
feel comfortable reporting a case of sexual
assault to:
◦ The campus conduct system
 45% reported being comfortable or very comfortable
 28% reported neutral feelings
 27% reported being uncomfortable or very
uncomfortable
◦ The criminal justice system
 73% reported being comfortable or very comfortable
 16% reported neutral feelings
 11% reported being uncomfortable or very
uncomfortable
Quantitative Results

What do you think should be the consequences for
students found responsible for sexual assault:
◦ In the campus conduct system
 80% expulsion
 43% suspension
 50% disciplinary probation
◦ The criminal justice system





52% 1 – 5 years in prison
17% 6 – 10 years in prison
13% more than 10 years in prison
11% probation
6% community service
*Each question asked students to mark all that apply
What would prevent you from using
the campus conduct system?
Afraid other students would find
out/confidentiality
 “Embarrassment”/Shame/Fear
 Fear of retaliation
 Too serious a crime for campus
system/only criminal courts can give
proper punishment
 Lack of knowledge about campus system
 Lack of confidence that system is effective

What would prevent you from using
the criminal justice system?
Fear of retaliation
 “Embarrassment”/Shame/Fear
 Afraid others would find
out/confidentiality
 Lack of knowledge about the system
 Lack of confidence that system is effective

Sexual Assault: Since you were 14 years old,
have you been the victim of an attempted
sexual assault by:
16.0%
14.2%
14.0%
10.0%
11.7% 11.9%
11.2%
12.0%
9.2%
9.8%
9.5%
8.5%
8.0%
6.0%
4.3%
4.9%
4.0%
1.8%
2.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
Rumors
Criticism
Total
1.8%
0.0%
Drunk
Men
Threats
Women
Force
Sexual Assault: Since you were 14 years old,
have you been the victim of a sexual assault by:
20.0%
18.9%
18.0%
15.2%
16.0%
14.0%
11.8%
12.0%
10.0%
13.0%
10.9%
9.5%
9.3%
7.6%
8.0%
6.0%
4.6%
5.4%
4.0%
2.0%
0.0%
1.7%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
Rumors
Criticism
Drunk
Threats
Total
Men
Women
Force
Part 3: Focus Groups
•
Focus group design, 3 focus groups, n=18
•
Convenience sample recruitment via email
•
Vignette about sexual assault scenario,
followed by general questions about campus
perceptions
•
Facilitator and note taker present
•
Debriefed misinformation
Data Analysis

Green et al. (2007) four step process of
inductive data analysis: immersion in the
data, coding, creating categories, and the
identification of themes.

Three types of triangulation: co-facilitator
review, audience review, and triangulation
with other data sources.
Results/Conclusions
•
Themes:
Confidentiality
Fear of getting in trouble
Legitimacy of campus discipline system
Misunderstanding of Clery Act timely
notifications
▫ Fear of judgment and rape myths (alcohol use,
alone with perpetrator, he said/she said)
▫
▫
▫
▫
Theme: Confidentiality
I feel like it might be easier for students to find
out about it and that kind of puts you in an
awkward place.
 a pro is reporting it to a community…you might
feel safer but at the same time it is a double
edged sword because it’s a community, therefore,
people are going to find out about it…
 It just makes it more difficult because people
talk…it’s not an incredibly large campus and so
word spreads quickly so…whether or not they
try to keep it behind closed doors…it can get out
someone.

Confidentiality

Viewed as:
◦ Peer confidentiality
◦ Peer “rumor mill”
◦ Lack of compartmentalization by university
administrators
 Known as a victim by administration
 Information “leaking” into other leadership areas
Theme: Fear of Getting in Trouble
Like with respect…I mean I’ve heard people say that I
don’t want to tell on campus or use the judicial
system because I don’t want to get in trouble…yeah,
like what I went through is worse but I don’t want
there to have to be consequences for me as well.
 And she might be scared that the people who got her
the drinks with the fake ID that she’s going to get
them in trouble.
 I think going off campus, it might alleviate the fear of
them getting put on probation for, you know,
underage drinking in a residence hall or something
like that. More confidentiality for her part...the things
that violate the code of student life.

Theme: Legitimacy

It’s unfortunate but I think people take the off-campus
police more seriously than the on-campus police. So,
they might be more intimidated to go off-campus
where they think its quote “real”…the real world and
something not affiliated with the university.

I think there is only so much that the campus can do
and this is kind of something really serious. You know,
this is a rape case that we’re talking about and I mean,
yeah it happened on campus and they can take their
procedures as far as needs be as far as the guy staying
in school and stuff but as far as getting this handled as
a case and him being convicted of this, it probably
sounds like a job for the [local police].
Legitimacy
Comments about legitimacy included:
 Serious crimes should be handled by
external agencies
 Negative associations with campus judicial
process from previous conduct issues
 Misinformation about campus conduct
process
 Lack of trust/respect for campus police
 Participants expected positive outcomes of
criminal justice process.
Theme: Confusion about Timely
Notifications
Campus-specific theme after two timely
notifications about sexual assault were
rescinded.
 Sense that the location information
compromised confidentiality.

Theme: Fear of Judgment/Rape
Myths

Or just having to explain yourself period.
You know, like she said, it’s a tough situation,
you don’t want to relive it, but, I mean, you
know what you did and what you didn’t do
and how it goes but there are those people
on the outside who want to be nosy or for
whatever reason want to make you sit there
and explain yourself, like “why did you go to
his room?” Well, not that its any of your
business, but I wanted pizza. (group
laughter) You know?
Rape Myths
Victim’s use of alcohol
 Victim alone with perpetrator
 Making “too big a deal” of assault
 Lack of a verbal “no”
 “He said/She said” can’t be proven
 Victim’s responsibilities to set boundaries

Results/Conclusions
▫ There are a combination of campus-specific
and cultural and development factors that
act as barriers to using the campus
disciplinary system and the criminal justice
process.
▫ Mixed method studies with the student body
can provide insight into attitudes and issues
around this issue.
▫ Question: What other barriers do you think
exist for your campus?
Sharing with Stakeholders
Campus Relationship Violence-Sexual
Assault Response Team
 Coordinated Community Response Teamlarger steering committee on violence
against women issues
 Chancellor’s Safety and Security Council
 Discussions with campus police and
conduct officers

Campus Responses
Issue Raised
Campus Response
Fear of personal conduct outcomes
Address in new student orientation
program
Fear of negative peer appraisal
Educational campaign for female
target audience
Questions about costs associated with Changes in policy language,
examinations
educational efforts with new students
Lack of information about the
processes
“Just in time” information availability,
purposeful messages in educational
programs
Campus Responses
Issue Raised
Campus Response
Fear of campus conduct/negative
associations with campus system
Option to meet with conduct officer
to hear about system, police and
conduct officers willing to come to
victim advocacy office
Confusion about timely notifications
Education of key student contacts,
discussion with campus police about
effects, examination of message
content
Fear of retaliation
Add protection from retaliation to
educational descriptions of campus
process, campus orders of no contact
References

Bachman, R. (1998). The factors related to rape reporting
behavior and arrest. Criminal Justice Behaviors, 25, 8-29.

Catalano, S.M. (2006). Criminal Victimization, 2005 (NCJ214644,
U.D. Department of Justice). Washington, DC: Bureau of
Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice.

Filipas, H.H., & Ullman, S.E. (2001). Social reactions to sexual
assault victims from various support services. Violence and
Victims, 16, 673-692.

Fisher, B., Cullen, C., & Turner, M. (2000). The sexual
victimization of college women. Washington, DC: National
Institute of Justice & Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S.
Department of Justice.

Fisher, B.S., Daigle, L.E., Cullen, F.T., & Turner, M.G. (2003).
Reported sexual victimization to the police and others:
Results from a national-level study of college women. Criminal
Justice & Behavior, 30, 6-38.
References (cont.)

Koss, M.P., Gidycz, C.A., & Wisniewski, N. (1987). The scope of rape: Incidence
and prevalence of sexual aggression and victimization in a national sample of
higher education students. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55, 162-170.

Lomardi, K. (2010, February 24). A Lack of Consequences for Sexual Assault.
Retrieved from:
http://www.publicintegrity.org/investigations/campus_assault/articles/entry/1945/

Nasta, A., Shah, B., Brahmanandam, S., Richman, K., Wittels, K., Allsworth, J., &
Boardman, L. (2005). Sexual victimization: Incidence, knowledge, and resource use
among a population of college women. Journal of Pediatric and Adolescent
Gynecology, 18, 91-96.

Orchowski, L.M., Meyer, D.H., & Gidycz, C.A. (2010). College women’s likelihood
to report unwanted sexual experiences to campus agencies: trends and
correlates. Journal of Agression, Maltreatment, & Trauma, 18(8), 839-858.

Ruch, L.R., Coyne, B.J., & Perrone, P.A. (2000). Reporting sexual assault to the police
in Hawaii (NCJ188264, National Criminal Justice Reference Service). Washington,
DC: U.S. Department of Justice.

Tjaden, P., & Thoennes, N. (2000). The Full Report on the Prevalence, Incidence, and
Consequences of Violence Against Women: Findings from the National Violence Against
Women Survey. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice and Centers for
Disease Control.