Andrew Cook
W240
“Big” Ethnography
5.3.2011
Feminization of Poverty
By in large poverty has become a major problem for families within the United States
and continues to be the focal point for many researchers. More interestingly, poverty is becoming
a larger problem for women, in particular female-headed households. The “feminization of
poverty,” or the trend by which women represent an increasing proportion of the poor, is
becoming noticed more and more every day. As poverty rates among women continue to rise, the
factors that shed light into the daily struggles and issues that women face are becoming clearer.
Communities, families and peers exert cultural pressures and the media that encourage
people, particularly women, to conform to a subculture of poverty that undermines their
opportunities to escape poverty. This conflict is realized by the experiences that low-income
people go through and the responsibilities they have. Women contend with traditional values that
place primacy on motherhood over self-sufficiency or independence, therefore missing out on
finding ways out of poverty. As poverty rises and falls, it remains a critical issue for both
families and single headed women. In response to this overwhelming problem, the ethnographic
research paper focuses on identifying factors that women in poverty face and better identifies
why the feminization of poverty is such a problem.
Defining Poverty
In the United States, poverty is generally measured by two components—a set of poverty
lines or income thresholds, and a definition of family income to be compared with those
thresholds (Citro and Eds). Mollie Orshansky developed the current poverty measure in the mid-
1960’s and she did this by taking the cost of a minimum adequate diet for families of different
sizes and multiplying the cost by three to allow for other expenses that the family may come
across. Families that were defined as poor were the families whose incomes were below the
threshold for a family of a given size. As of 2009, the average poverty threshold for a family of
four was $21,954 per year. But the poverty line varies by family size and by whether the
individuals are over or under the age of 65 because food costs are expected to differ from family
to family. The calculation of the poverty line has been criticized for a number of reasons,
specifically because it is a highly arbitrary measure due to the appropriateness of each family.
Nevertheless, this is generally how poverty is defined.
Causes of Female Poverty
As we gain information about how poverty is measured, do we have the ability to
understand the factors that place them in poverty? More importantly, does it give us insight into
why females are more likely to be in poverty than males?
Labor Market Factors
One of the first factors is job growth. Job growth tends to be concentrated in the service
sector, particularly in the entry level or “secondary sector” jobs, such as cashier, waitress or sales
clerk. These jobs pay near minimum wage and generally do not offer benefits like health
insurance, vacation time or even medical leave of absence. The problem is not finding a job but
rather finding a job that that pays well enough to bring the person out of poverty, which brings us
to the next factor, minimum wage.
As of now, minimum wage is $7.25 per hour, the same as it has been since 2009.
A female that works full-time for 52 weeks a year will earn slightly more than $15,000 earning
minimum wage (Minimum-Wage.org). This is not a lot of money for anyone, but especially for
females that are the head of the household. These numbers make it very difficult for females that
are in poverty to survive because so many of them are the sole providers.
Another factor that females are faced with is the movement of jobs from the inner cities
to the suburban areas. Females that live in the inner cities have fewer opportunities in accessing
jobs in the suburbs due to little money and lack of transportation. With jobs moving to other
areas, females are running out of options for employment. In addition, more jobs are becoming
part-time, subcontracted or even temporary. These jobs that offer irregular work hours tend to
have high layoff and high turnover rates (Seccombe 1100). Conditions like these are extremely
difficult for females to survive in, especially considering that other people and other men are
competing for the jobs that are left. With fewer and fewer options, females are squandering for
ways to get out of poverty.
Poverty Culture Factors
Among labor market factors, poverty culture helps in understanding why many females
experience poverty. Some culture theorists believe that poverty makes head way into a person’s
life when low-income children are raised into values that reduce motivations to succeed in the
job market. Some of those values promote higher rates of out-of-wedlock births, teen pregnancy,
drug use, crime violence, and unemployment among females. (Cabaniss & Fuller 4). Theorists
say that a culture of poverty creates a set difference among poor people and it also results in
attitudes and behaviors that can progress into poverty. If females are socialized into these
conditions, they are less likely to value the opportunity to escape poverty as they mature. An
impoverished lifestyle almost becomes natural for them, as if it were a way of life for everyone.
They become trapped in a circumstance that is familiar. If all they know are poor conditions,
than that is what they will be comfortable living in. Another thing that happens is that average
people stigmatize poor people by thinking that because they are poor and trapped in poverty,
they will then act irrationally. While it is true that poor people can act irrationally just like any
other person, they are more likely to act irrationally because of economic constraints imposed on
them.
On the other hand, some research finds that even though many females have had
influences in their lives that have reduced their motivations to succeed, they can be considered
bicultural because they share some of the same beliefs and behaviors that actually encourage
both mainstream cultural values and an adaptation to poverty. Sometimes these females
comprehend the mainstream values; they are just unable to fulfill them (Cabaniss & Fuller 4).
Social, Emotional, and Intellectual Factors
As we have seen, research reveals that poverty is much more than an economic
inconvenience. It affects not only the wallet but more importantly it affects one’s mental and
physical well being. Poverty can hinder adults’ social, emotional, biological, and intellectual
growth and development. Situations such as eviction, utilities being disconnected, problems
taking care of household chores, or simply not having common household appliances can cause
emotional wear and tear on someone’s mind and body (Seccombe 1096).
Socially and emotionally, people that have been raised in poverty are much less likely to
have strong social skills that more affluent peers have and as a result, can be subject to some
major consequences. Some of these consequences can cause a lack of new brain cells, alter the
path of maturation, and predispose people to emotional dysfunction. The need for human contact
and attention is very important in the early years of development and when these needs are not
met, people are more likely to be disabled in later years. Low-income parents are often
overwhelmed by diminished self-esteem, depression, and a sense of powerlessness. As a result,
these feelings are communicated to their children in the form of insufficient nurturing and a
general failure to focus on their children’s needs. The stress of poverty increases depression,
which can result in an increased use of physical punishment and, in full circle, becomes a
predictor of teenage depression as well (Denny, Clark, Fleming, & Wall, 2004).
Intellectually secure relationships help stabilize children’s behavior and provide the
guidance needed to build lifelong social skills. Children who grow up with such relationships
learn healthy, appropriate responses to everyday situations. On the contrary, children raised in
impoverished and emotionally underdeveloped households often fail to learn responses such as
these and it affects their school performances. Students with emotional irregularity may get
frustrated on a task and give up entirely even if the task was close to being finished. When
interacting with children in this state it is important to have an understanding of their background
and situation in order to be able to support them efficiently.
Coming To Terms with Poverty
As the feminization of poverty continues to be an issue, it is never more clear than when
it actually transpires near you. It is clear that the issue of poverty exists; you hear about it, you
read about it but when you are actually placed in the middle of it, it finally hits home.
Closer to Home
Tucked off to the side, in the middle of a small shopping area, stands a small building
that holds a massive amount of food. Not only does that building hold massive amounts of food
but it also captivates the attention of approximately 1,894 patrons weekly (MHC). The 1,894
patrons are people that are currently battling the pervasive issue of poverty and they are using the
services that are provided from the local food pantry, Mother Hubbard’s Cupboard, to help
relieve their situation.
Three hours a week, for approximately 10-12 weeks, I had the ability and privilege of
interacting with these specific patrons of Mother Hubbard’s Cupboard. As an outsider, foreign to
the surroundings, I began to indulge myself into the lives and culture of the local poor
community members. As I sat back gazing over the stacks of food, I quickly noticed that a large
percentage of the people that were enjoying the free services of the food pantry were females.
There were men, there were babies and children of all ages but most of the patrons I came across
were female. Interestingly enough, I started to notice that what I was reading about the
feminization of poverty was actually taking place in my own community. The issue of
feminization was getting too close to home.
As stories fluttered from ear to ear, I began to get a sense of what kinds of circumstances
the women that used MHC were facing. Some of the women were raised in families that were
poor from early youth and receiving food from service agencies like Mother Hubbard’s
Cupboard had become a weekly routine. Some were facing poverty due to a recent loss of
employment. Every story was difficult to come to terms with but none hit harder than the story
about the women that had seventy-two tumors. Just like so many others that share the experience
of poverty, “Maria” lost her job and does not have enough money to afford health benefits,
benefits that would give her the possibility of a fulfilling life. As of now, she makes it through
her days trying to find employment while sleeping at a local homeless shelter at night. As
discouraging as her situation may be, “Maria” finds reasons to keep fighting. As she goes
through and selects the items that she needs for the week, she remarks, “I probably will not be
here to see it, but one day life will be better and poverty will be forever gone.” I took a deep
breath trying to find the right words, any words, then I began to think; this could be me.
Defeminization of Poverty
Would it be better to eliminate poverty or would a more sensible goal be to defeminize
poverty? From a policy standpoint, defeminizing poverty would be a more tangible goal.
Although good jobs are critical for the economic self-sufficiency of men and women, a reduction
in poverty requires us to focus attention on women. If efforts were directed toward providing
childcare, medical benefits and jobs that provide a living wage, we would have a greater chance
at eliminating the issue and have a greater chance for success.
It may, however, be time to move beyond the moralistic values and narrow our visions
back to the family structure. There are many dedicated parents, both married and unmarried, who
need assistance in providing adequate food, shelter, medical care and education. These unmet
needs, articulated within diverse contexts, may provide the catalyst for specific policy proposals
with regard to job creation, health care reform and expansion of childcare. The solutions to these
problems exist and it involves getting involved as outsiders and becoming an insider to the
culture of poverty.
Works Cited
Breakdown by Age of Poor Female Residents in Bloomington (percentage below Poverty Level). Digital
image. Bloomington, Indiana (IN) Poverty Rate Data - Information about Poor and Low Income
Residents. City-Data.com, 2009. Web. 28 Apr. 2011. <http://www.city-data.com/poverty/povertyBloomington-Indiana.html>.
Cabaniss, Emily R., and Jill E. Fuller. "Ethnicity, Race and Poverty Among Single Women: A Theoretical
Synthesis." ProQuest Education Journals. ProQuest. Web. 28 Apr. 2011.
<http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=1081948931&sid=1&Fmt=3&clientld=12010&RQT=309&VNam
e=PQD>.
Citro, C., and Michael R. Eds. "How Is Poverty Measured in the United States?" Institute for Research on
Poverty. 6 Dec. 2004. Web. 28 Apr. 2011. <http://www.irp.wisc.edu/faqs/faq2.htm>.
Higgs, Steven. The Other Bloomington. Digital image. The Bloomington Alternative. Web. 2 May 2011.
<http://www.bloomingtonalternative.com/>.
Mother Hubbard's Cupboard - A Bloomington Community Food Pantry. Bloomingfoods Market and Deli
& Whole Foods Market. Web. 28 Apr. 2011. <http://mhcfoodpantry.org/index.html>.
Seccombe, Karen. "Families in Poverty in the 1990's: Trends, Causes, Consequences, and Lessons
Learned." JSTOR. JSTOR. Web. 28 Apr. 2011. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/1566726>.
"United States Minimum Wage By State 2011 | Minimum-Wage.org." Minimum Wage Rates, History,
and Labor Law Info. Web. 28 Apr. 2011. <http://www.minimum-wage.org/wage-by-state.asp>.