S.O. Kurbanov
The University of St. Petersburg, Russian Federation
HISTORICAL TRANSFORMATION OF KOREAN PERCEPTION OF
FILIAL PIETY (孝) AS REFLECTED IN KOREAN MORAL BOOKS
OF 14th – 17th CENTURIES
Text of the Paper to be presented at the 2nd World Congress of Korean Studies
Pyongyang, August 3 – 7, 2004
1. Introduction: different ways of perception of hyo (孝) in Korea
1.1 Variety of approaches in perception hyo (孝) in Korea
In modern and old Korean literature one can find multiple ways of definition of what is
called in Korean “hyo” (효, 孝). The word hyo is usually translated in English as filial piety.
Korean-Korean dictionaries explains hyo as “good serving to parents” (어버이를 잘 섬기는
일).
The most recent perception of filial piety in the Republic of Korea could be illustrated
through internet sites. Among multiple sites concerning filial piety (효) only one could be
evaluated as comparatively “academic”. This is a site of so called “Sungsan Hyo Graduate
School” (성산효도대학원대학교)1. But this site is devoted more to the School maintenance
problems than to theoretical or practical problems of filial piety.
The other Korean filial piety internet sites, which the author of the paper was able to
discover, contains practical information about such things as preparing presents for parents,
love for mothers, serving aged persons etc2.
Sometimes those sites present stories from old Korean moral books. But usually their
perception of filial piety limit within vocabulary meaning of word hyo as “good serving to
parents”.
Books concerning filial piety (hyo) published in the Republic of Korea during last
decades can be divided into two categories: 1) reprint of multiple translations of classical
1
www.hyo.ac.kr
2
www.hyodohaja.com; www.onlymom.com; www.hyo.or.kr
1
Confucian “Book of Filial Piety” (孝經); 2) books on morals in general and filial piety in
particular written in the form of essay (수필)3.
It is quite difficult to find modern academic book about hyo (孝) where hyo is regarded
in the dimension of category of culture (cultural category). One of the rare exception from
this trend is a collection of papers presented at an international conference “Filial Piety and
Future Society” organized in 1995 by the Academy of Korean Studies (Republic of Korea)4.
Examination of libraries of the Republic of Korea undertaken by author of this paper in
2003 has demonstrated that most of papers dealing the category of hyo (filial piety) in
academic manner are limited within M.A. papers. And most of these M.A. papers about filial
piety were prepared at Pedagogical institutes (faculties) of South Korean universities. That
means that principal aim of those researches was not “pure academic” but applied and they
were prepared for improving education process in Korean schools with the help of filial piety
education.
Academic research about filial piety in Korea is still not a matter of deep attention.
Another result of studying South Korean books about filial piety was discover that
some of authors who write about hyo (孝) think that this phenomenon is not Oriental and that
it can be found in any culture of the world. For example there is an opinion largely spread
between some South Korean writers (researchers) and common people, that the idea of hyo
(孝) can be found not only in Confucianism, but also in Catholicism, Protestantism, and
Buddhism5.
But from Western point of view, the “filial piety” when expressed by word hyo (孝) is
not a category unique for all the cultures of the world, but it is a special Korean (special Far
Eastern) category of culture which is absent in Western cultures6.
Of course, Western societies know tradition of looking after aged parents. But this is
not the same as Korean (Oriental) category of hyo (孝).
Perhaps, such commixture of traditional Korean category hyo (孝) and Western concept
of looking after aged parents could have taken place at the end of 19th – beginning of 20th
centuries, at the time of Protestantism penetration into Korea. That time protestant
missionaries began to translate Bible into “modern” Korean language. And Decalogue of
3
白 南喆. 孝의 硏究. 서울, 1977. 한 태원. 韓國의 孝와 孝行. 서울, 1989.
배 갑제. 人生과 孝道.
서울, 1998.
4
孝思想과 未來사會. Filial Piety and Future Society. May 15 – 17, 1995. Seongnam.
5
최성규. 효학총론 // 효학 개론. 서울, 성산효도대학원대학교, 2001, 13 – 35 쪽.
白 南喆. 孝의 硏究. 서울, 1977.
6
Simbirtseva T.M. Koreya na perekryostke epoh (Korea on the crossroads of epochs). Moscow, 2000.
2
Moses calling people to “respect parents” could be translated or interpreted as “executing
filial piety hyo (孝) for parents.
Actually, in modern South Korean literature one can find direct interpretation of
biblical precept to respect parents in the meaning of following hyo (효도 하라)7. May be
because of such oriental way of interpretation, alien religion (Christianity) became closer to
minds of Koreans. The opposite effect of such transformation of basic concepts of Korean
thought resulted in impression that hyo is spread all around the world, as a category universal
for all mankind.
1.2 Modern definitions of hyo in the Republic of Korea
As it was stated above, the most citizens of the Republic of Korea percept hyo as “good
serving to parents” (어버이를 잘 섬기는 일).
Prevalence of such point of view on hyo – filial piety, both in North and South Korea
can be proved by coinciding articles of Korean-Korean dictionaries, published both in North
and South of Korean Peninsula8.
Interpretations of hyo presented in most popular South Korean internet sites are similar.
The internet site “Korean Ideas and Culture of Filial Piety” (한국의 효사상과 문화;
http://my.netian.com/~densi) states: «The Way of hyo is the moral duty of good serving to
parents. The ideograph hyo consists of a synthesis of a shortened ideograph “old” and
ideograph “son”, thus it shows appearance of a son who is carrying an old man on his back.
Thus the meaning [of the word] can be interpreted as a “son providing elders (parents) with
food”. (“효도(孝道): 부모를 잘 섬기는 도리. 효(孝)는 노(老)의 생략형과 자(子)의
합성글자로, 아들이 노인을 업고 있는 모양. 즉 아들이 노인(부모)를 잘
공양한다는 뜻»).
But this definition of hyo, presented in South Korean internet sites and Korean
dictionaries is not singular one. Modern South Korean literature, both essays (fiction) and
scientific research works present much broader approaches in understanding of what the hyo
is.
For example, Li Seonggu (이 성구) in his book “Korean hyo” writes, that fulfilling hyo
includes not only serving somebody’s parents but also serving his grand- and grand-grand
parents, serving deceased ancestors and all the relatives9.
7
최성규. “성경적 효”란 무엇인가 // 서울, 성산효도대학원대학교, 2001, 85 쪽.
8
새국어사전. 서울, 1992, 2299 쪽; 우리말 큰 사전. 전 3 권. 서울, 1992, 제 3 권, 4764 쪽; 현대조선말
사전. 평양,
9
2366 1981 쪽.
李成九. 韓國의 孝. 서울, 1987, 10 – 11 쪽.
3
Large variety of modern South Korean perception of hyo-filial piety could be illustrated
through the content of hyo-related essays published in Seoul in a very popular book (reprinted
several times) which has title “Hyo”10.
A doctor Mr. Choe Sinhae (최신해) has written in his essay “Hyo of Koreans” that
every social group has its own specific hyo. For that ones who rules a country hyo (孝) is
economical consume of national natural resources and abidance of law. For government
officials hyo (孝) is performance of many good deeds and making their names well-known.
For common people hyo (孝) is producing high quality goods and economical consumptions
of products11.
From the Choe Sinhae’s point of view, serving parents is not so important for
fulfilling hyo as providing prosperous life for state12.
Besides, one can find out many other ways of interpretation of hyo in modern South
Korean literature. Here are some examples of it: 1) good serving to all living and deceased
relatives; 2) good serving to all elders; 3) good serving to a teacher; 4) good serving and
faithfulness to a ruler; 5) making a good career; 6) not damaging personal body; 7) an
important element in governing nation (state), etc.
Why there are so many ways of understanding of hyo-filial piety in modern Korea?
Which of them are true, closer to “original” spirit of this cultural phenomenon?
Distinguishing different approaches for fulfilling hyo according social strata originates
from Confucian classical “Book of Filial Piety” (孝經).
Besides, the author of the paper has discovered that those different ways of perception
of the essence of hyo (filial piety) in Korea are connected with each specific period of time in
the history of Korea. In other words, each epoch in the history of Korea showed differences in
perception of the essence of hyo (filial piety).
And modern South Korean researchers have not clearly distinguished time differences
in perception of hyo which has resulted in some “mixture” in modern description of this
Korean cultural phenomenon.
2. Description of hyo (孝) perception in Korean moral books
of XII – XVII centuries
Prior to present description of characteristics of Korean perception of hyo-filial piety as
they are reflected in Medieval Korean moral books, it is necessary to mention the first special
10
효. 서울, 1987.
11
최신해. 한국인의 효 // 효. 서울, 1987, 76 쪽.
12
Ibid., P. 79.
4
book about filial piety, where this question was first treated in most detailed way. This is a
Chinese Confucian classical “Book of Filial Piety” (孝經).
In this paper we do not intend to discuss originality of this Chinese classic book. This
question is quite complicated. But, at the same time, it was studied well enough in
professional literature.
Nevertheless it is necessary to have a glance at some basic elements of hyo (孝) as they
were described in this Chinese classics to be able to compare classic Chinese perception of
hyo (孝) with Korean perception as it is reflected in Korean Medieval books.
2.1 Basic elements of hyo (孝) as reflected in the “Book of Filial Piety” (孝經)
Though the “Book of Filial Piety” was originally Chinese it has also became an organic
part of Korean culture. At least since the Unified Silla period (7th – 10th centuries) the “Book
of Filial Piety” was an obligatory topic in state examinations, which every person seeking for
official rank had to pass13.
Since Joseon period the last Neo-Confucian version of the text of the “Book of Filial
Piety” edited by Chinese thinker Dong Ding (동 정, 董 鼎) became very popular in Korea.
In 16th century a special Korean court department, named Gyeojongchon (校正廳) – “Bureau
for comparison and correction [of texts]” has translated the Dong Ding’s version of “Book of
Filial Piety” (孝經大義), but without later (not original) comments14. Korean version of this
book was named as “Hyogyeong eonhae” (孝經諺解) – “Korean translation and comments to
the ‘Book of Filial Piety’ ” and became really a part of Korean traditional culture.
As the “Hyogyeong” (Chinese pronunciation – “Xiaojing”) was the first special book
about filial piety, it is naturally to suppose, that there one can find original theoretical
foundation of the filial piety, accepted also in Korea as basic Confucian principle.
The first chapter of the book – “Canonical Chapter” (經 一 章) introduces the filial
piety (孝) as diverse for various social classes – beginning from governor (monarch) and
finishing by common people (peasants).
But prior to explain such “stratified” and quite complicated model of behavior of each
social strata, the “Book of Filial Piety” 1) explains necessity of owning and following hyo and
then 2) presents a universal principle of hyo, which the author of this paper has named as
“Formula of Filial Piety”.
13
劉 奉鎬. 韓國敎育課程史 硏究. 서울, 교학연구사, 1992, 16 쪽.
14
See: S.O. Kurbanov. Hyogyong onhae as a Specimen of Korean Translation of Chinese Classics //
Proceedings of the Center for Korean Language and Culture // Issue 3-4. St. Petersburg, 1999.
5
The first phrase of the “Hyogyeong” has the following passage: “Former kings have
had Highest Virtue and Principal Way and used this for make the Universe obedient. People
had harmony and upper and lower [classes] never had hatred [to each other].” (先王 有 至德
要道 以 順 天下 民 用 和睦 上下 無 怨). The sentence pointed above is following by
phrase: “Naturally hyo (孝) is the root of Virtue” (夫 孝 德 之 本 也)15.
Thus from the first sentence of the classic “Book of Filial Piety” it is obvious that the
category hyo (孝) is very important foremost because it is necessary for successful ruling a
country. First original phrases of the treatise give no mention about duty to somebody’s
parents or family members. In other words, if someone wants its country to be in peace and
prosperity, he has to follow principles of hyo.
Then the text of the “Book of Filial Piety” gives universal recommendations to
everybody (in no connection with social class). The book states: “Anyone’s body, hairs and
skin is received from [his] parents, so not presuming to hurt this is beginning of hyo. Settling
down, behave according the Way and faming his name is the end of hyo [as executed for]
parents. The hyo begins in serving relatives, continues in serving a governor and finishes in
settling down” (“身體 髮膚 受之 父母 不 敢 毁傷 孝之 始也. 立身 行道 揚名 於
後世 以 顯 父母 孝之 終也”. “孝 始 於 事親 中 於 事君 終 於 立身»16).
The quotation from the “Book of Filial Piety” presented above is not a unique
“discover” of the author of paper. It is well known by many Koreans who are not specialists
in social sciences.
This quotation was placed into the text of the present paper with the only aim to show
that classic Confucian understanding of hyo (孝) is not limited with “serving parents”. And
what is more, it is not a simple “serving parents”.
But at least by 16th century the Korean perception of hyo (孝) turned to be (or to begin)
simple serving parents. The Korean translation of the treatise – “Hyogyeong eonhae”
(孝經諺解) begins from the original Korean phrase, absent in Chinese original: “Good
serving to parents is hyo” (어버이를 잘 섬김을 효라 하고…).
Thus, looking at this originally Korean phrase from the treatise one can suppose, that
Korean perception of hyo (孝) was different from Chinese classical, it was more “narrow”, at
least in 16th century, the time when Korean translation of the “Book of Filial Piety” appeared.
How and when did the originally broad in meaning Far Eastern cultural category hyo
(孝) transformed in Korea into “simple” serving-to-parents action?
It is not easy to answer the reasons of such a process. But it is possible to notice time
transformation of perception of filial piety both in China and Korea through study of Korean
Medieval moral books, describing acts of hyo (孝) – filial piety.
15
단국대 중앙 도서관 소장 “孝經諺解” 목판본, 1 a – b 쪽.
16
단국대 중앙 도서관 소장 “孝經諺解” 목판본, 1 b 쪽.
6
Well known Korean Medieval moral books, where acts of filial piety were described
specially (professionally) were appeared only at the time of Goryeo period (918 – 1392).
First texts containing description of acts of filial piety which were preserved up to
nowadays are biographies of filial sons and daughters compiled by Kim Busik in his
“Historical records of Three kingdoms” (김부식. 삼국사기).
2.2 Biographies of faithful sons and daughters (孝子, 孝女) in
“Historical records of Three kingdoms” by Kim Busik
Kim Busik (1075 – 1151) was a chief compiler of the first Korean “official history”
(正史) of Korean dynasties. According to historical records, there could be earlier “official
dynasties history” in Korea but there texts were not discovered yet.
As any “official dynasty history”, the work by Kim Busik has a partition titled
“Biographies” (列傳). But in his book there is still no chapter specially devoted to dutiful
sons and daughters, like one can find in the history of the following dynasty Goryeo (高麗史
一百二十一: 孝友). In the Volume 48 of the book by Kim Busik there are 4 biographies,
which in 15th century were picked up to compile the first Korean moral book - Samgang
haengsildo (三綱行實圖) – “Illustrations of real actions of Three precepts”, where one
volume is fully devoted to descriptions of acts of filial piety.
Two of 4 biographies introduce biographies of men, both of them acted “extraordinary”
if to compare their actions with the content of classical “Book of Filial Piety”. Hyangdeok
(향덕, 向德), a common man, fed his parents with his flesh which he has cut from his own
leg. This was in 755, when famine occurred in Silla. His act was highly appreciated in king’s
court and he was granted with crops, house and land.
Another man, named Seonggak (성각, 聖覺; supposedly a Buddhist monk), lived in a
Buddhist monastery when he was young. After his mother senesced, he returned back home.
Seonggak was a poor man and had no sufficient funds to feed his mother. So he decided to
feed his mother with flesh cut from his own leg. After mother died Seonggak zealously
prayed Buddha for his mother.
This kind of “serving parents” realized through bloody self-sacrifice was a violation of
one of the main principles of “classic” filial piety – not harming someone’s body given by
parents. Koreans, who were familiar with the classic Confucian concept of filial piety (孝)
supposedly did not accepted this “new” way of filial piety without demur. This can be proven
by comments made by Kim Busik after narrating these 2 biographies. He does not agree with
critic of similar behavior of filial children reflected in Chinese history of Tang dynasty “Tang
shu” (唐書). He writes that both of heroes of two Korean biographies were not educated
7
people. They did not know about rituals and tried to serve their parents in the way they could.
So their deeds should be highly appreciated and recorded in historical books17.
Anyway, the important thing in this passage by Kim Busik is an indication that when
those self-damaging, self-sacrificing acts of serving parents first appeared in Korea, they were
not accepted by educated Koreans.
Two other biographies of dutiful daughters (孝女) in the “Samguk sagi” were placed by
Kim Busik “far” from biographies of Hyangdok and Songgakj just like there is no connection
between them.
Biography of a girl named Jieun (지은, 知恩) narrates how the girl has sold herself to
get money for be able to feed her aged mother. Biography of Seol (설, 薛) introduces the
story about faithful daughter who did not marry and waited very longtime return of her
fiancée, who served in the army instead of her aged father. These two biographies show no
“extraordinary” acts made for aged parents. But, at the same time, their content is not strictly
following the classic Confucian concept of filial piety.
Anyway, until 14th century no special book on filial piety (孝) was compiled or
published in Korea.
2.3 First Korean treatise on filial piety – “Hyohaengrok” (孝行錄)
Compilation of the first Korean special book on filial piety was begun in the middle of
14th century, at the time of king Chungmeogwang (1344 – 1348). This was the time of socioeconomical reforms aimed to make order in society according Confucian principles of society
construction.
An appeal for filial piety (孝) as one of the basic Confucian principles could improve
situation in society of Goryeo. Responsible for compilation of the book were scholar Gwon
Bo (權 潽, 1262 – 1346) and his son Gwon Jun (權 準, 1287 – 1367). Collection of 62
biographies presenting examples of acts of filial piety exclusively from Chinese (!) history
was titled as “Hyohaengrok” (孝行錄) – “Recordings about acts of filial piety”. Famous
Korean Confucian scholar of that time – Li Jehyeon (李 齊賢, 1287 – 1367) has written a
preface to this book. Later he has added to 38 biographies of “Hyohaengrok” words of
glorification. As the book was written in Chinese, which was not known by ordinary people,
the compiler of the book, Gwon Bo has asked the king’s court to paint 24 pictures illustrating
the book stories about filial children.
17
Kim Busik. Samguk sagi. Russian translation and facsimile edition of the block-print text by M.N.Pak, L.R.
Kontsevich. Vol. 3. Moscow, 2002, P. 183.
8
It is hard to say, whether pictures were prepared, because, for example, a block-print
volume of the book, preserving at the Library of the Academy of Korean Studies (1600 year
print) has no pictures18.
It seems, that finally the manuscript was prepared only by the end of 14th century,
because it has an afterword, written by a great grandson of the compiler – Gwon Geun (權 近,
1352 – 1409). It was printed in 1428 by decree of the famous king Sejong, after a scholar Seol
Sun (설 循, ? – 1435) has corrected the manuscript.
South Korean encyclopedias states19, that “Hyohaengrok” (孝行錄) was very popular at
the beginning of the Li dynasty. But, supposedly, king Sejong was not satisfied with
publication of “Hyohaengrok” (孝行錄), because in the same year 1428 he ordered Seol Sun
to compile new moral book for it could be spread in the country.
A motive for compiling books on moral, especially on filial piety, was an accident
which took place in 1428. This year somebody named Gim Hwa (金 禾) from Jinju city has
killed his father.
Why “Hyohaengrok” (孝行錄) did not satisfied king Sejong as a “behavior model”
moral book? Here we can bring two suggestions. 1) The book has no Korean stories about
filial children. All examples of acts of hyo (孝) was brought from history of China. 2) The
biographies, presented in “Hyohaengrok” (孝行錄) was not systematized. Their position in
the book was put in no chronological, either geographical, or any other order.
May be this was the reason, why the “Hyohaengrok” (孝行錄) was not translated into
Korean later.
Besides, at least 43 biographies from 62 of “Hyohaengrok” (孝行錄) was picked up by
Seol Sun and placed in newly compiled book on morals, which was given the title: “Samgang
haengsildo” (三綱行實圖) or “Illustrations of real acts of Three precepts”.
2.4 Description of filial piety in “Samgang haengsildo” (三綱行實圖)
The manuscript of “Samgang haengsildo” (三綱行實圖) was finished by 2nd month of
1432 and printed in 1433. The book had 3 volumes. The first one, titled as “Samgang haengsil
hyojado” (三綱行實孝子圖) or “Filial piety illustration of real acts of Three precepts”, has
111 biographies of filial children. 89 of stories introduced biographies of Chinese, and 22 –
biographies of Koreans. Korean section has 4 biographies of Silla period, 7 biographies of
Goryeo and 11 biographies of Joseon20.
18
“孝行錄”. 창서각 소장 목판본. (색인: B9FC).
19
For example, see: 한국문화대백과사전. 서울, 한국정신문화연구원, 1991.
20
삼강행실도 (효자편). 서울, 세종대왕기념사업회, 1982.
9
In 1481 “Samgang haengsildo” (三綱行實圖) was translated into Korean and published
as bilingual text. The translated version of the book was titled as “Eonhae Samgang
haengsildo” (諺解 三綱行實圖). So, it had all necessary qualities to become a book largely
spread in Korea.
Every biography in the book was preceded by a picture showing an act of filial piety.
One can say that it was a “grandfather” of modern “cartoons” (만화), because every page
with a picture presented 2, 3 or 4 scenes simultaneously, placed in chronological order.
Some of Korean researchers evaluate dominance of Chinese biographies in the book as
“sadaejui” (事大主義) or “principles of serving big [empire, (China)]”21. But, from our point
of view, referring to China first was quite natural thing, because category hyo (孝) itself was
Confucian, and if Chinese do not follow the hyo (孝), invented by themselves, why should
Koreans do this?
The volume “Filial piety illustration of real acts of Three precepts” (三綱行實孝子圖)
begins from description of hyo (孝) of a legendary Chinese emperor Shun (舜帝大孝). Then
follow filial piety biographies of famous Chinese emperors Wen-wang (文王問安) and Woodi (武帝). All three biographies of Chinese emperors generally follow principal statements
and spirit of the classic “Book of Filial Piety”.
Then the book presents biographies of Chinese “filial children”: common people and
officials, men and women, Confucius disciples… All Chinese biographies are arranged
according chronological principle, beginning from the Zhou (周) dynasty up to Ming (明)
dynasty. Analysis of acts of filial piety of Chinese brings to conclusion that in China herself
perception of category hyo (xiao; 孝) was not constant and was changing from every epoch to
another.
Since the period of Han (漢, 220 b.c. – 221 a.c.) the category of filial piety (hyo, 孝)
begins to be associated with some extraordinary actions, which contradicted with original
Confucian concept of filial piety based on the normal behavior. (Getting fish for parents in
Winter time from the frozen river; 姜始出鯉).
In period of Southern and Northern dynasties (南北朝; 3 – 6 centuries) acts of filial
piety begin to be closely connected with different kinds of miracles (孟熙得金). In this block
of biographies miracles appear in two ways: 1) a mean to fulfill filial piety or 2) reward for
filial son or daughter who has executed hyo (孝).
Chinese Tang dynasty (618 -907) became a “revolutionary” period in perception hyo
(孝) in the Far East. Since that time a self-sacrifice for parents, accompanied with acts of
damaging bodies of filial children start to become a new normal way of serving parents
(의부할구, 義婦割股). Most of examples of such kind are realized through 1) cutting
21
김원용. 삼강행실도에 대하여 // 삼강행실도. 권 1. 서울, 세종대왕기념사업회, 1982, 5 쪽.
10
somebody’s flesh from leg to feed aged parents; 2) cutting one hand finger for making drugs
for aged and deceased parents. Stories of filial piety of Tang dynasty gathered in the
“Samgang haengsildo” showed fewer examples of classical type of hyo (孝) as it was fixed in
the “Book of Filial Piety”.
The Song (907 – 1279), Yuan (1280 – 1368) and Ming (1368 ~ [1644]) dynasties did
not show cardinal changes in perception of hyo (孝). The only noticeable thing is that more
and more cases of serving parents became rewarded by government. The most frequent type
of award became not “material” (like granting land, house or release from taxes) but “moral”
one: installation of stelas named as “Gates of honor” (정문-旌門; 정표-旌表).
As it was stated above, the “Filial piety illustration of real acts of Three precepts”
(三綱行實孝子圖) has 22 Korean biographies of filial children.
The 4 of them cover period of Unified Silla. They are the same 4 biographies of filial
children that Kim Busik has described in his “Historical records of Three kingdoms” (向德,
聖覺, 知恩, 薛). But all texts of these biographies were shortened by Seol Sun, compiler of
“Samgang haengsildo” (三綱行實圖)22.
The biographies of Hyangdok and Seonggak were placed after biographies of girls
Jieun and Seol. May be this was done because the compiler of “Samgang haengsildo”
(三綱行實圖) did not wished to shock readers with such “abnormal” (from the classical point
of view) manifestations of filial piety as cutting flesh from leg for feeding aged parents. The
compiler Seol Sun (unlike Kin Busik) did not place any personal comments about this kind of
“serving parents”. But, perhaps, he has expressed his personal opinion by putting the
biography of a man of Goryeo – Wi Cho (위 초, 尉 貂) on the first place in the “block” of
Goryeo biographies.
All biographies of filial children, that reader can find in the block of Goryeo
biographies of “Samgang haengsildo” (三綱行實圖) are presented in official history of
Goryeo – “Goryeosa” (고려사, 高麗史) 23 . And all of them are short-cut in “Samgang
haengsildo”. The way of short-cut is not only stylistic. The example of such semantic type of
short-cut is the biography of Wi Cho.
Wi Cho also has cut off flesh from his leg to feed his old age father. The “Goryosa”
presents the whole story in the way just like from the very beginning this act was percept
22
Biography of Jieun (知恩) has 4 new characters and 82 characters were short-cut. Biography of Seol (薛) has
only 174 characters from 500 of original text compiled by Kim Busik. In biography of Hyangdok (向德) 46
hieroglyphs of “original” 145 hieroglyphs (of the text of Kim Busik) were short-cut and 4 characters were
replaced. In Biography of Seonggak (聖覺) more than half of the text of Kim Busik’s original were short-cut in
“Samgang haengsildo” (三綱行實圖). (All estimations were made by the author of the present paper).
23
高麗史. 권 3. 평양, 1958, 510 – 513 쪽.
11
quite positively. But “Samgang haengsildo” omit this passage about high appreciation of Wi
Cho’s act from the very beginning. “Samgang haengsildo”, after describing the deed of Wi
Cho, narrates about discussion, which was opened at king’s court. This was the discussion
about how to react on self-damaging someone’s body for serving parents. Because from the
classical Confucian point of view the first task of a really filial child was not to harm his
own body.
Discussants (prime-minister Mun Jun; 문 준, 文 俊) referred to the similar case of
Chinese Tang empire, where such way of serving parents was accepted and highly
appreciated24.
This fact is very important, because it shows that Koreans tried to resist (through doubt
and dispute) an “abnormal” way of serving parents when a child should damage his body,
harm his health. And only after reference to self-sacrificing examples of acts of filial piety in
“contemporary” China (as a model of Confucian way of life) Koreans had accepted “cutting
flesh and fingers” acts of filial piety.
2.5 Description of filial piety in “Seok Samgang haengsildo” (續三綱行實圖)
After the “faulty” king Yeonsangun (1494 – 1506) was dismissed and the next king
Jungjong (1506 – 1544) took the throne, Confucianism has returned its power and influence.
That time Korean authorities has collected new stories about Korean filial children (孝子),
loyal dignitaries (忠臣) and faithful women (烈女). These stories were compiled in a new
book in 1514 by Sin Yeonggae (신 용개, 申 用漑). The book was named as “Continued
illustrations of real acts of Three precepts” or “Seok Samgang haengsildo” (續三綱行實圖).
The book, as one can suppose from its title, continued tradition of “Samgang
haengsildo” (續三綱行實圖). But there was one big difference. Most of biographies,
presented in the book, were Korean25.
For example, in the chapter “Illustrations of [acts] of filial children” (孝子圖) of the
“Seok Samgang haengsildo” one can find only 3 biographies of Chinese of Ming dynasty
while the other 33 biographies describe acts of filial piety executed by Korean men and
women of Joseon dynasty.
Besides, the content of the book has many other important differences, which can
illustrate how Korean perception of filial piety has changed in 16th century.
24
삼강행실도. 권 1. 서울, 세종대왕기념사업회, 1982, 영인본 부분 208 쪽.
25
續三綱行實圖. 목판본 영인본. 서울, 홍문각, 1983.
12
1) “Seok Samgang haengsildo” (續三綱行實圖) has only few examples of selfdamaging body for serving parents: only 2 biographies of total 36 biographies of filial
children.
2) The most current way of “serving parents” in 16th century as described in “Seok
Samgang haengsildo” (續三綱行實圖) becomes a 3-years life in front of parents’ graves. For
example, the biography that opens the treatise (仁厚廬墓) narrates about 9-year child who
lived in front of his fathers grave 3 years (notwithstanding his young age)26.
3) While “classical” perception of filial piety (reflected in “Book of Filial Piety” and in
first chapters of Samgang haengsildo”) stresses on ordinary (common) way of acts of serving
parents, the “Seok Samgang haengsildo” (續三綱行實圖) has more and more examples when
acts of hyo (孝) gradually becomes an extraordinary act, which requires special courage and
energy. As example we can point at the biography titled “Gangryeom breaks ice” (강렴
착빙). Gangryeom tastes father’s excrements to get known about his father’s health
condition27.
4) While “classical” perception of filial piety bases on an idea that peace and harmony
resulting from filial piety is the best prize for anyone, the “Seok Samgang haengsildo”
(續三綱行實圖) shows more and more cases when extraordinary acts of filial piety are
specially compensated (rewarded).
Thus, in 33 biographies of Korean filial children only 6 biographies presents acts of
filial piety which has got no reward. In other 27 cases filial children receive reward from
government. Among these 27 persons 7 has got posts of government officials, and 5 were
exempted from labor conscription.
5) While “Seok Samgang haengsildo” describes burials and life at parents’ grave it
stresses that all mourning rituals were done not in Buddhist, bur in Confucian manner. (See
biography of Gyeong Yeon – 경 연, 慶 延28). This peculiarity reflects conflict between
Confucianism and Buddhism which took place in Korea at the end of 14th – beginning of 15th
century.
Particularities of description filial piety hyo (孝) in “Seok Samgang haengsildo” show
that in 15 century the filial piety in Korea (though temporarily) has distanced from acts of
self-sacrifice with harming body, continued to transform in something outstanding and always
required rewards for such outstanding deeds.
26
Ibid, P. 2a-b.
27
Ibid., P. 4a-b.
28
Ibid, P. 26b.
13
2.6. Description of filial piety in “Dongguk sinsok
Samgang haengsildo” (東國新續三綱行實圖)
The Korean-Japanese Imjin War (1593 – 1598) has greatly disordered Korean society.
Perhaps, this is one of reasons why the king Gwanghaegun (1608 – 1623) has ordered a
scholar whose name was Li Seong (이 성; 李 性) to compile a new book on morals which
had to comprise new biographies of Korean filial children (孝子), loyal dignitaries (忠臣) and
faithful women (烈女). The book was compiled by 1716. It has the title “Dongguk sinsok
Samgang haengsildo” (東國新續三綱行實圖) or “Newly continued illustrations of real acts
of Three precepts of State of Orient”. Expression “State of Orient” (동국, 東國) means
“Korea”. It had to point, that the book shall deal only with biographies of Koreans.
The “Dongguk sinsok Samgang haengsildo” is the biggest book on morals ever
published in old Korea for large masses of population. It had 18 volumes of text. As well as
Korean books on morals published before, every biography began from picture showing deeds
of a hero. And it had both Chinese and Korean language texts29.
Among 18 volumes of the treatise 8 volumes are devoted to filial children. The
“Dongguk sinsok Samgang haengsildo” “repeats” and enlarges information about filial
children, published before in “Samgang haengsildo” and in “Sinsok Samgang haengsildo”.
For example, the part of filial children of Goryeo dynasty has 61 (!) biographies of filial sons
and daughters and 56 of them were added anew. (7 Goryeo biographies were presented in
previous books of acts of Three precepts). As to Joseon dynasty, the “Dongguk sinsok
Samgang haengsildo” has nearly 700 biographies of filial children
But as the quantity of examples of acts of filial piety enlarged so the quality of
description reduced. About 50% of all biographies of hyoja (孝子) consist only of 2-3 lines of
text indicating 1) name of a hero, 2) his birthplace, 3) type of act of filial piety. Description of
filial acts in such “biographies” are often limited with a simple phrase like “three years lived
at parent’s grave” or “cut his finger and fed it his parents”.
Another important peculiarity of description of acts of filial piety in “Dongguk sinsok
Samgang haengsildo” is that in most cases heroes of biographies of filial children get reward
for their (usually extraordinary) acts.
3. Conclusion
The analysis of text of Korean works of filial piety of 14th – 17th centuries pointed above
has led the author of the paper to the following main conclusions:
29
東國新續三綱行實圖. 영인본. 권 1 – 9. 서울, 홍문각, 1992.
14
1. The ancient Chinese (Classical Confucian) perception of hyo (孝) was originally broad in
meaning and was not limited in a simple “good serving to parents”.
2. Korean moral books studied by the author of the paper shows that during the Chinese
history of the 1st millennium the meaning of hyo (孝) became more narrow. At the Tang
period first appeared hyo (孝) with bloody self-sacrifice actions (contradicting with the
ancient meaning of hyo (孝)).
3. In Korea first recorded acts of hyo (孝) belongs to the period of Unified Silla. Since that
time the character of Korean hyo (孝) was already sacrificial.
4. In the period of Goryo Koreans have made an attempt to reject the Tang (Chinese) selfsacrificial (“abnormal” from Confucian Classical point of view) way of fulfilling hyo (孝).
5. But since the Chosun period originally normal execution of hyo (孝) has transformed into
extraordinary actions of few people which acts always needed to be specially appreciated
and rewarded by officials or king.
6. The trend pointed above became absolutely dominant in Korea since the beginning of 17
century. It is obviously reflected in the treatise Dongguk sinsok Samgang haengsildo
(東國新續三綱行實圖).
7. By 17th century, originally large and universal concept of filial piety (hyo, 孝) has
transformed in Korea into a narrow perception of filial piety as: 1) serving aged parents 2)
serving parents by executing extraordinary “heroic” acts.
8. Large variety of approaches of understanding the hyo (孝) - filial piety in Modern Korea
originates from “mixture” of ancient classical (Confucian) and modernized (as it was
transformed by the end of 19th century30) perceptions of this category of traditional
Korean culture.
30
The author of this paper has studied texts of stelas of filial piety (효행비) erected in Korea in 19th – beginning
of 20th century and he has not discovered principle differences between approaches to filial piety in 19th –
beginning of 20th centuries and in 17th century (as it was reflected in “Dongguk sinsok Samgang haengsildo”.
15