Past participles
1. Past participles are often used like adjectives, sometimes directly before a noun,
sometimes directly after or following ‘be’. In all these cases most past participles have a
passive meaning. (Whereas present participles usually have an active meaning)
- a broken heart = a heart that has been broken (by someone or something)
- a graphic designer based in London = a graphic designer who is based in London (by
circumstance)
- the radiator is broken = the radiator has been broken (by someone or something)
2. They can be used with ‘be’ or another linking verb to describe how people feel (again
with a passive meaning).
- I am bored, interested, excited etc. (by....)
- my mother seemed delighted with the present
3. However some past participles can be used like adjectives with an active meaning:
a) before nouns.
- advanced students = students who have advanced (NOT: who have been advanced)
- other examples: increased activity, escaped prisoner, swollen ankles, faded colours
b) when accompanied by adverbs.
- a well-read person, a much-travelled man, recently-arrived immigrants
c) after ‘be’.
- she is retired now = she has retired now (NOT: she has been retired)
- those curtains are badly faded. My family are all grown up now. This class is the
most advanced.
N.B. Some past participles are used with an active meaning after ‘be’ but not usually
before nouns.
- recovered, camped, stopped, finished, gone.
e.g. these cars are stopped at the crossroads (NOT: the stopped cars at the crossroads)
4. Like present participles, past participles can be used after nouns in order to identify/
define them instead of using an identifying relative clause. These past participles do not
give properties/ characteristics of the noun, but help identify it.
- we couldn’t agree on any of the problems discussed = the problems that we discussed
- the people questioned gave different answers = the people that were questioned
5. Participles can combine with other words into participle clauses.
- there’s a woman crying her eyes out over there
- most of the people invited to the reception were old friends
6. Participle clauses can also be used like adverbial clauses to express condition, reason,
time relations, result etc., but only when the idea of condition, reason etc. is so clear that
no conjunction is needed to signal it. In these cases the register is very formal.
- Used economically, one jar will last 6 weeks = if it is used economically.....
- Having failed my medical exams, I took up teaching = As I had failed....
- Putting down my newspaper, I walked over to the window = After I had put down....
NB: when participle clauses are used like adverbial clauses –ing forms can be created
with verbs that are usually used to describe states (and thus can not used in the
continuous form such as be, wish, have, know)
- knowing John well, I realised something was wrong = Because I knew John well....
7. ‘By’ is used after passive verbs to introduce the agent so when we use a past
participle like an adjective we usually prefer another preposition.
Passive verb: she was frightened by the mouse
PP as adjective: She is frightened of spiders
Passive verb: I was annoyed by the way she spoke to me
PP as adjective: I’m annoyed with you
Passive verb: the burglar was surprised by the family coming home early
PP as adjective: I’m surprised at/ by your attitude
8. Clauses with past participles are possible after if, when, while, once, until. This
creates a formal register.
- If asked to look after luggage for someone else, inform the police immediately
- When opened keep in the refrigerator
9. Participles (present and past) can be used in the structure object + participle (clause)
after verbs of sensation (e.g. see, hear, feel, watch, notice, smell) and some other verbs
(e.g. find, get, have, make)
- I saw a small girl standing in the goldfish pond.
- We’ll have to get the car repaired before Tuesday.
- We’ll soon have it fixed for you.