AS Psychology:
Unit 2 PSYA2 (May exam)
Social Psychology – Social Influence
Booklet 1 (of 2): Social Influence
Specification
 Types of conformity,
including internalisation
and compliance.
 Explanations of why
people conform, including
informational social
influence and normative
social influence.
 Obedience, including
Milgram’s work and
explanations of why
people obey.
What Key Skills will I cover in this booklet?
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C2.1a
C2.2
IT2.1
C3.1a
C3.2
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Discussion Activity
Discuss the following points in small groups.
 Do people always think and act independently?
(Give examples to illustrate your answer)
 Give an example of when you have acted independently.
 Have you ever felt under pressure to behave in a particular way
because of group pressure? What was it about the situation that
caused you to change your behaviour? Was the pressure real (were you
told to do something) or was it imagined (you felt that you should act in
a certain way)?
 What reasons could there be for not acting independently in any given
situation?
 In your own words, define what you understand by the term
“conformity”
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Types of Conformity:
including Internalisation and Compliance
First of all we need to answer the question - What is conformity?
Conformity: The tendency to change what we do (behaviour) or think and say
(attitudes) in response to the influence of others or social pressure. This
pressure can be real or imagined. There are two main types of conformity;
compliance and internalisation.
There are different types of conformity:
1. Compliance:
This is the most superficial type of conformity. Here, the person conforms
publicly (out loud) with the views or behaviours expressed by others in the group
but continues privately to disagree. For example they may laugh at a joke that
others are laughing at while privately not finding it very funny. Their personal
views on the subject do not actually change. Compliance is also used to describe
the process of going along with the requests of another person while disagreeing
with them.
2. Internalisation:
This is the deepest level of conformity. When the views of the group are
internalised, they are taken on at a deep and permanent level, and they
become part of the person’s own way of viewing the world. For example, a
student who becomes a vegetarian whilst sharing a flat with animal rights
activists at university may retain those views and continue to be a vegetarian
for the rest of their life. Internalisation is also known as ‘conversion’.
Activity: You need to be able explain the main differences between the 2 types
of conformity. Have a go now:
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Real-life examples of Compliance and Internalisation
Can you think of a real-life example of compliance?
Can you think of a real-life example of internalisation?
Research into Compliance and Internalisation
1. Research study showing ‘compliance’: Asch (1951)
Asch devised a straightforward (unambiguous) task
which involved judging the length of lines. The
ambiguity was tested in a pilot study, during which
participants made a total of only three mistakes in
720 trials (showing how unambiguous the task was).
In the full study, 123 American male undergraduates
were shown a series of lines (The ‘standard line’ and 3
comparisons, one of which was the same length as the
standard line) to participants seated around a table. All but one of the participants
were “confederates”. Asch instructed the confederates to give the same incorrect
answer on 12 out of the 18 trials – he called these “critical trials”. The true (naïve)
participant was always the last or last but one to answer.
Asch found a mean conformity rate of 37%, i.e. Participants agreed with the
incorrect majority answer on just over one-third of the critical trials. This is very
high especially given the unambiguous and easy nature of the task. Within the 37%,
there were wide individual differences as 5% conformed on every critical trial (these
could be seen as the most conformist) yet 25% remained completely independent,
going against the majority and giving the correct answer on all 12 critical trials.
Asch’s participants explained that one of the reasons that they agreed with the
majority on an obviously wrong answer was so as not to stand out from the crowd this is clearly an example of compliance.
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A diagram of the line judgement task used by Asch:
AO2 Evaluation: Methodological issues:
Use your psychological knowledge to now explain as many evaluation points for Asch’s
study as you can… Remember, once you’ve learned a study you can often use your
previous knowledge (and you common sense) to evaluate it!
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There was a high degree of control over variables: This means
that because the Asch experiment was set within a laboratory, the
setting was highly controlled and extraneous variables could be
minimised. For example, noise and lighting could be easily controlled.
This is positive because it suggests that the IV was the only variable
affecting the DV allowing a cause and effect relationship to be
established and giving the study high internal validity.
Deception:
This means Asch’s study can be
criticised for deliberately misleading
the participants. Evidence for this
comes from the way in which Asch told
his participants that all of the people
sat around the table were participants
when they were really confederates.
This is a problem as it goes against the
BPS ethical guidelines which suggest
that deception should be avoided.
Furthermore, by using
deception, it is also not
possible to gain full informed
consent for the experiment
until afterwards during a
debriefing (this is known as
retrospective consent).
However, in defence of Asch, he would not have been able to obtain realistic results
if he had not used deception.
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2, Research study showing ‘internalisation’:Sherif (1936).
Sherif used the “autokinetic effect” (an optical illusion in which a stationary spot of
light in a dark room appears to move) to test conformity.
During the experiment, each participant was taken
individually into a dark room and asked to focus on a
single spot of light. Sherif asked each participant to
estimate how far the light moved and in what direction
(as the light doesn’t actually move this is an ambiguous
task). Sherif found that the participants’ estimates of
distance and direction varied quite dramatically.
Several days later, participants were asked to repeat
the perceptual task. This time they were placed in
groups of 3 (made up of individuals with quite different estimates). Again, Sherif
asked each participant to estimate the distance and direction of the ‘moving light’
several times.
Sherif found that individuals changed their individual views and converged or agreed
on similar answers to the other participants. Those with high estimates lowered
them and those with low estimates increased them so that by the third trial each
individual in the group produced a very similar answer.
Rohrer et al (1954) replicated the study and found that when participants were retested (individually) up to a year later they continued to use the group answer rather
than reverting to their initial individual answers. Therefore individuals had ‘taken on’
the views of the group (internalised them) and privately changed their beliefs,
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AO2 Evaluation: Methodological issues:
There was a high degree of _________ over variables: This
means that because the Asch experiment was set within a laboratory,
the setting was highly controlled & ___________ variables could be
minimised. For example, unintended lighting changes could be easily
controlled. This is positive because it suggests that the IV was the
only variable affecting the DV allowing ________ & ________ to be
established and giving the study high __________ validity.
However, this study can also be criticised as lacking …………………… validity:
This means the research was conducted in the artificial setting of a laboratory.
For example, participants in this experiment were being asked to perform an
………………………………. task in a strange setting that is not reflective of real-life
situations (i.e. making judgements about how far a light moves). This is
problematic as the findings can’t be _____________ to real-life settings.
The study can also be criticised for using …………………………… which is an ethical
issue: This means the participants were deliberately mislead regarding the true aims
of the experiment. Evidence for this comes from the fact Sherif lead
participants to believe that the light …………………………. when in fact it didn’t. This
is a problem as it goes against the ethical guidelines which suggest that
deception should be avoided.
Furthermore, this also means that the participant were denied
…………………………….. consent as they could not have been fully informed about the
true nature of the study and their role within it. This also goes against the
………..……… guidelines about how to conduct an ethical investigation.
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Explanations of why people conform, including ‘normative
social influence’ and ‘informational social influence’
People conform for one of 2 reasons:
1.
Normative social influence (NSI)
2. Informational social influence (ISI)
1. Normative Social Influence (NSI) relates to an individual adapting to a group
position in order to be accepted and gain approval and not be perceived as deviant by
the other members of the group. It is based on the desire to be liked. This type
of influence also occurs as it is rewarding to be accepted and be a part of a group.
This usually involves public compliance – in a group we may ‘go along’ with the
behaviour and the attitudes of others without truly believing or accepting it. In this
instance, we do not privately accept what we are saying or doing publicly.
Evaluation: Normative Social Influence.
Can you think of research we have looked at where ‘normative
social influence’ occurred? Explain your answer.
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2. Informational Social Influence (ISI) In this case, people are usually unsure
what to do in a situation, they may not know what is the right or correct way to act
so they look to others for guidance. Thus if a situation is ambiguous (no obvious
right or wrong answer), we look to others as a source of information to help us
perceive the situation accurately and reduce ambiguity. We tend to seek guidance
from people who we see as being better informed than ourselves. It is based on the
desire to be right. This usually involves private acceptance (internalisation) – in
this case people conform to the norms of others because they genuinely believe that
they are right. This can result in a change in private beliefs and attitudes.
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AO2 Evaluation: Informational Social Influence
Explain how Shrerif’s (1936) research supports the theory of ‘informational
social influence’..
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Differences between Normative Social Influence and
Informational Social Influence
Normative Social Influence
Informational Social Influence
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Exam-style Questions
(1)
What is meant by the term conformity? (2 marks)
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(2)
Two of the following are descriptions of types of conformity.
[A] Publically conforming to views of others, but maintaining one’s own
private views.
[B] Movement neither away from nor towards group norm.
[C] True conversion of public and private views to match those of a
group. These views are not dependent on group membership.
(a) In the table below, write down which examples, A, B or C matches each type
of conformity listed in the table. (2 marks)
Type of conformity
Example
Internalisation
Compliance
(b) Outline a real-life example of:
(i) Internalisation (2 marks)
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(ii) Compliance (2 marks)
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(3) It is the first week of Sam’s new job. He arrives at work to find the other till
operators all drinking coffee in the rest room, even though it is past the store
opening time. He knows that this is frowned upon by the management but even so he
joins them. Later in the day, he is asked to move from the tills to the shelf-stacking
team as they are short staffed. He has not been trained for this, so at first he
hangs back and watches what the others do and then follows their lead.
(a) From the description of Sam’s behaviour above, identify one example of
normative social influence. Explain why you think this is an example of normative
social influence. (3 marks)
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(b) From the description of Sam’s behaviour above, identify one example of
informational social influence. Explain why you think this is an example of
informational social influence. (3 marks)
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(c) Explain the difference between normative and informational social influence.
(3 marks)
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(4) Ali and Nadine are at a peace march in London. Ali has spent much of the day
talking to other marchers about their views and beliefs and has agreed to march
with them again the following week. Nadine has enjoyed the company of other
marchers and is beginning to feel as if she is part of the group. When they discuss
marching the next week, she does not commit herself and sign up for the march until
she sees that most of the others are going to march again, whereas Ali is one of the
first to sign up for the march next week.
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Explain how social influence research can help us to understand Ali and Nadine’s
behaviour. (6 marks)
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(5)
Discuss explanations of why people conform (12 marks).
AO1
AO2
AO1
AO2
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(6) Many investigations into conformity have raised the ethical issue of deception.
(a) Explain why deception is an ethical issue. (2 marks)
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(b) Outline a strategy for dealing with this ethical issue. (2 marks)
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(7)
Discuss the extent to which research supported the view that the majority
exerts a significant degree of influence over the individual? (12 marks)
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Obedience including Milgram’s work and
explanations of why people obey
Obedience: A type of social influence whereby someone acts in response to a
direct order from a perceived figure of authority. There is also the implication
that the person receiving the order is made to respond in a way that he or she
would not otherwise have done.
Obedience to Authority Research – Milgram (1963).
Milgram aimed to test the ‘Germans are different’ Hypothesis with his study at Yale
University (a prestigious setting). 40 male participants were selected to take part in
the study.
Milgram used a confederate and fixed the selection of roles so that the confederate
was always the ‘learner’ and the participant was always the ‘teacher’. He used a fake
set up whereby the teacher was instructed by an authority figure (the
experimenter) to punish the learner (by electric shock) for incorrect responses on a
memory test. The shocks ranged from 15V (labelled ‘slight shock’) and increasing in
15V increments to 450V (labelled XXX). Milgram was interested to see how far the
participants would go in order to comply with an unreasonable order (to deliver an
electric shock to another human) from an authority figure.
During the experiment many of the participants showed signs of extreme tension.
They shook, sweated and stuttered. Many of the participants repeatedly argued with
the experimenter yet all participants continued to deliver the shocks up to 300V,
and a staggering 65% continuing to 450V. This was unexpected, as before
conducting the research, people had estimated that most would stop at 100V.
Milgram was therefore able to conclude that Germans are not different and in fact
we are all capable of blind obedience to unjust orders.
AO2 Evaluation: Methodological Issues
Use the 4 point rule to outline a strength of Milgram’s research:
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However, Milgram’s research can be criticised for lacking ecological validity:
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This means that…
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For example. …
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This is problematic because…
Furthermore, the artificial setting of the laboratory and lack of mundane realism of
the task (administering electric shocks is not an everyday event) may encourage
demand characteristics: This means participants may have realised the
experimental set-up was fake and were just behaving as they thought they were
expected to. Evidence for this comes from Orne who suggested that the
participants did not believe that the electric shocks were real and they were
therefore not really obeying the experimenter’s demands to hurt the learner. This
is a problem as it means the research may, in actual fact, lack internal validity.
AO2: Ethical Issues:
The study can also be criticised for
using …………………………… which is an ethical
issue: This means the participants were
deliberately mislead regarding the true
nature of the experiment. Evidence for
this comes from the fact Milgram led
participants to believe that the
…………………………………………....…………..…………………
when in fact they were not. This is a
problem as it goes against the ethical
guidelines which suggest that deception
should be avoided.
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Furthermore, the
participants were denied
…………………………….. consent
as they could not have
been fully informed about
the true nature of the
study and their role within
it. This also goes against
the ………..……… guidelines
about how to conduct an
ethical investigation.
Explanations of why people obey
In order to further explore the factors that influenced obedience, Milgram
replicated his experiment, making slight changes each time to assess how the
environment, power of the experimenter and the proximity of the ‘learner’ and the
‘teacher’ can effect whether a person obeys or disobeys an authority figure.
Situational Factors in Obedience:
AO1: The ‘Agentic Shift’:
It is easy to deny personal responsibility when orders come from a figure
of authority because it can be assumed that they will take ultimate
responsibility. In these instances, we become ‘agents’ of an external authority.
According to Milgram, obedience occurs as a result of a conflict
between 2 opposing sets of demands:
1. The external authority – authority of the experimenter or authority figure
2. The internal authority – authority of our own conscience
The fully obedient person undergoes a psychological adjustment or ‘shift’ whereby
they see themselves as an agent of external authority (assuming ‘the agentic state’).
AO2: Evidence to Support:
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AO1: Legitimate Authority: An important factor in obedience refers to the
amount of social power held by the person who gives the instruction. We may obey
people with legitimate authority because we trust them. Alternatively we may obey
them because they have the power to punish us. Either way, the perception is that
their authority should not be questioned.
AO2: Evidence to Support:
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AO1: Gradual Commitment:
This means that in the experiment participants become locked into
obedience in small stages. This is also known as the ‘foot in the door
technique’ and means that once you have made some form of
commitment it is hard to go back on it.
AO2: Evidence to Support:
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Personality Factors in Obedience:
The Authoritarian Personality:
Psychologists have investigated whether certain types of people are more likely to
be obedient than others. E.g. a person with low self esteem may not feel confident to
speak out against an authority figure even if they don’t agree with the order.
AO2: Evidence to Support:
Adorno found that, in a study of 2000 American students, people who had
been brought up by strict parents who used harsh, physically punishments,
often grew up to be very obedient. It was concluded that individuals with an
‘authoritarian personality’ have a tendency to be extremely obedient. This
supports the idea personality is a key factor in whether someone will obey.
Milgram and Elms: Carried out interviews with a sub-sample of participants from
the original Milgram experiment and found that those participants who were fully
obedient and went to 450 volts scored higher on test of authoritarianism and lower
on scales of social responsibility than those who did not obey. This supports Adorno’s
claims that individuals with an authoritarian personality are more likely to obey.
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Exam-style Questions:
(1)
“Milgram’s research is of no value because it was conducted in a laboratory.”
Discuss the methodological difficulties faced by social psychologists
conducting their research in a laboratory. (5 marks)
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(2)
Outline one explanation of why people obey (4 marks)
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(2)
When a teacher tells you to do something, it is usual for you to obey.
(a)
Using your knowledge of factors that have been found to affect
obedience, explain why you might obey in this situation. (6 marks)
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(3)
Give two explanations of why people obey, and offer one criticism of each of
these. (12 marks)
Plan your answer in the space provided:
(4)
Milgram carried out an experiment investigating obedience. One criticism of
this study is that it was unethical. Discuss one ethical issue raised by this
research. (4 marks)
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Imagine this:
You have agreed to take part in a psychology study into the effects of punishment on
learning, for which you will be paid a small fee. The study takes place at Yale University.
When you arrive you are greeted by the experimenter, who is a young man wearing a lab
coat. With him is Mr Wallis, who has also agreed to take part in the study, he’s an
accountant in his late 50’s, slightly overweight and average in appearance.
The experimenter explains that one of you will be the ‘Teacher’ and the other the
‘Learner’. After drawing straws it is determined that you are to be the ‘Teacher’ and Mr
Wallis is the ‘Learner’.
You then watch Mr Wallis get strapped into a chair, and electrodes are attached to his
arms, which will deliver electric shocks. You overhear Mr Wallis mention that he has
heart problems. The experimenter replies that although the shocks will be painful they will
not cause ‘permanent tissue damage’. You’re given a shock at 45V so you know what it
feels like and you are reassured that the University is liable, if anything should go wrong.
The experimenter then leads you to a generator in the next room. It has a number of
switches clearly marked with voltage levels and verbal descriptions:
15 – 60v
75 – 120v
135 – 180v
195 – 240v
255 – 300v
315 – 360v
375 – 420v
435 – 450v
Slight shock
Moderate shock
Strong shock
Very strong shock
Intense shock
Intense to extreme shock
Danger: Severe shock
XXX
You are then asked to read out a series of word pairs (e.g. Blue-girl, nice-day, fat-neck).
You are to test Mr Wallis’s memory on each of these pairs. Mr Wallis answers from the
next room by pressing one of four switches, which lights up a panel in front of you. If he
answers correctly you move on to the next question, if not you must give him a shock,
with each mistake being punished by a shock 15v higher than the previous. You are to
treat no response as an incorrect answer.
You can hear Mr Wallis protesting from the next room and somewhere along the line you
turn to the experimenter (who is watching over you) for guidance. He responds with
statements such as ‘Please continue’, ‘It is absolutely essential that you continue’, ‘You
have no other choice, you must go on!’
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