Research methods
Revision booklet
Research design
E x p e r i m e n t
Matched pairs
Independent groups
Repeated measures
Contents page
Hypothesis and variables - Alternate and Null
Directional and non-directional
Aim
Extraneous, confounding variables
IV and DV
Reliability and Validity
Sampling methods
Experimental designs Independent measures
Repeated measures
Matched-pairs design
Experiments – Lab
Field
Advantages and Disadvantages
Natural
Methods of research Case study
Observation
Questionnaire
Ethics
Interpreting data - graphs
Correlations
Mean
Median
Mode
Standard deviation
Quantitative and qualitative data
Research Methods Revision Booklet
This booklet has been designed to show you all the key terms you need to know
for this section of the exam. This needs to be completed over the winter
break. It is also suggested that you use revision techniques such as a cheat
sheet, mind maps and the keyword method to learn key terms.
What is a hypothesis?
What are the two types of hypothesis and what is the difference between
them?
What is the difference between a directional and a non-directional
hypothesis?
What is an independent variable?
What is a dependant variable?
What is an extraneous variable?
Explain the four types of extraneous variable
1)
2)
3)
4)
What is meant by single-blind and double-blind techniques?
What does it mean to operationalise a variable?
Reliability and Validity
Define reliability
Define validity
What is the difference between internal and external validity?
How can validity be measured?
Sampling Methods
What is meant by the Target Population?
Describe each of these sampling methods,
Random Sampling
Opportunity Sampling
Volunteer Sampling
Experimental Designs
Describe each of these experimental designs and an advantage and
disadvantage for each.
Repeated Measures
Advantage=
Disadvantage =
Independent Measures
Advantage=
Disadvantage =
Match Pairs Design
Advantage=
Disadvantage =
Why would an experimenter use the following?
Standardised Instructions
Standardised Procedures
Advantages and disadvantages of different methods in
research
Use the following to answer the questions
on the following pages!!!!!
Laboratory experiments
In the experimental method, participants are put under different
conditions and then their performance is measured. The laboratory is a
convenient setting for the experimental method because the
experimenter can then control what happens.
Advantages
Disadvantages
The experimenter can control the
experiences of the participants. It is
possible to isolate cause and effect
relationships more precisely.
The laboratory is an artificial
situation. Participants may act
differently from the way they
would in real life.
Equipment can be ready and available
for measuring the participants’
behaviour.
Tasks may have little relevance to
real life.
Quantitative data can be collected,
which can be statistically analysed to
see if it supports the hypothesis.
Experiments only measure
behaviour over a short period.
Natural experiments
Take advantage of a naturally-occurring change in behaviour. By
measuring before and after the change, the experimenter hopes to find
out what affect the change had. An example of a natural experiment
might be a study that looks at the effects on aggressive behaviour of the
introduction of TV for the first time into a previously isolated community.
Do not confuse natural experiments with naturalistic observation.
Advantages
Disadvantages
Behaviour is observed in natural
surroundings.
There is no control over other
changes that might happen.
Samples are usually large and
representative.
Measure may be not as accurate as
direct observation because of the
presence of the experimenter.
Case study
This is an in-depth study of one individual or a small group of people. Case
studies are often carried out on those who are of special interest
because they are outstanding or different in some way.
Advantages
Disadvantages
The case can be viewed in depth and long
sequences of behaviour can be followed
Results cannot be generalised as they
may not be representative of the
general population.
It is not artificial as it relates to an
individual or small group’s experiences.
Sometimes, case studies are carried
out retrospectively and the evidence
may become distorted in people’s
memories.
Rich qualitative data can be collected
Replication is difficult
Interviews
There are two types of interviews – structured and semi-structured.
In structured interviews each participant is asked the same questions in
the same order. Many of the questions will have a fixed set of responses
that the participant has to choose from.
Advantages
Disadvantages
Data can be summarised and analysed Any interesting issues raised
quite quickly
participants cannot be followed up
by
It is possible to interview large
numbers of people fairly efficiently
Semi-structured interviews use a combination of fixed questions and
open-ended questions where participants are given the opportunity to talk
about particular topics.
When participants are answering the open-ended questions the
researcher is quite likely to ask further questions to get the participants
to clarify points or say more about issues that seem to be interesting.
The term unstructured interview is used to refer to interviews where
there are no fixed questions at all.
Advantages
Disadvantages
Generates huge amounts of data which Analysis can be very time consuming
enables interesting topics to be
explored in great depth
Useful when dealing with complex Replicating
issues such as bereavement, violence difficult
and parenting
the
research
can
be
Observational studies
There are two forms of observational study: participant observation and
non-participant observation.
In participant observation the researcher becomes part of the group
they are studying and takes part in the group’s activities as well as
recording the behaviour of the group.
In non-participant observation the researcher is separate from those
being observed and records the behaviour but does not take part in any
of the activities.
Advantages
Disadvantages
Participants are behaving naturally in an One of the main ethical issues is consent.
everyday environment. This means that Participants should normally be aware
that they are taking part in a study and
the studies have high ecological validity.
have the right to withdraw. However,
there is the problem that if participants
know they are being observed they may
change their behaviour.
Observational studies also tend to focus
on ‘whole behaviours’ rather than
breaking behaviour down into small units
Questionnaires
Questionnaires are used to obtain views of large numbers of people about
specific issues or topics.
The questions on a questionnaire can be either ‘closed’ or ‘open’. Closed
questions provide people with a fixed set of responses, whereas open
questions allow people to express what they think in their own words.
The responses to closed questions are easy to summarise and quantify
whereas the responses to open questions are much more difficult to
analyse. But in some ways the rich detail provided by open questions can
provide useful insights into the topics being researched.
One problem encountered when using questionnaires is ‘response set’.
What can happen is that people stop reading the questions and just tick
the same answer all the way down the page.
Advantages
Disadvantages
Large amounts of data can be collected
very easily and quickly
Rely on self-report data which may be
biased
Questionnaires using closed questions are
highly replicable.
Data may be biased by response rates
Open ended questions can provide rich
detail
Social desirability effects may
influence responses
Methods of investigation
For each of the methods of investigation below you must explain each and
provide two advantages and disadvantages.
Pilot Studies
Laboratory Experiments
Advantages =
Disadvantages =
Field Experiments
Advantages =
Disadvantages =
Natural Experiments
Advantages =
Disadvantages =
Correlations
Advantages =
Disadvantages =
Case Studies
Advantages =
Disadvantages =
Interviews
Name the different types of interviews that could be used.
Advantages =
Disadvantages =
Questionnaires
Advantages =
Disadvantage =
Name and explain the two types of questions that can be used in both
interviews or questionnaires:
1
2
Ethics
Identify and explain the six of the ethics that all Psychologists need to abide
by:
What does the acronym DIP stand for and how can you use it in your exam
answers?
Representing Data
Identify the three types of graphs that you can use and explain under what
conditions you would use them?
1
2
3
Descriptive Statistics
Explain how to calculate the following and describe their purpose within
investigations:
Mean
Mode
Median
Range
What does a high standard deviation show?
What does a low standard deviation show?
Quantities and Qualitative Data
What is the difference between these two?
What is a content analysis?