CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE USE OF PEAT SWAMP FORESTS BY LOCAL
COMMUNITIES IN SOUTH EAST ASIA
Ramakrishna, Sundari, Wetlands International- Malaysia Office, 3A39, Block A, Kelana Centre
Point, Jalan SS7/19, Kelana Jaya, 47301, Petaling Jaya, Malaysia. Tel: +603 78046770,
Fax:+603 78046772,E- mail: sundari@wiap.nasionet.net
LOCAL LIVELIHOODS OF PEOPLE WITHIN PEAT SWAMP AREAS IN KALIMANTAN AND
SUMATRA
The capacity of the government to open up marsh areas and peat swamps for agriculture is
based on the resource use by the local people in Kalimantan and Sumatra. Peat swamps have
been used by the local people for generations who enjoy a simple and good life with natural
resources like paddy, sago, and fish; wood like rotan; and medicinal plants; roots, leaves and
berries for cooking, honey, birds’ nest and others.
Rural families living around and within tropical peatlands benefit from the ecosystems. Hence
unsustainable development may hinder their livelihoods. Table 1 shows the importance of
peatland ecosystems from the local perspectives. Similar situations may be found elsewhere
where population density is low and conflicts over claim of lands do not exist.
Table 1. Resource Use in East Kalimantan Peat Swamp Forests
No
Product
Annual Quantity
Economic value ($) **
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Total
Construction timber
Fuel woods
Mixed timber
Wooden roofing
Bamboo
Rattan
Resin
Medicinal plant
Deer
Pig
Singing birds
Fish
2,850 m3
4,400 m3
375 m3
52,000 bundles
15,000 pieces
164,273 pieces
223 kg
10,345 items
168
71
345
2,850,000 kg
100,000
119,000
67
46,000
517
7,300
17
1,750
9,700
625
137
671,260
956,373
*) Based on survey conducted in East Kalimantan from 100 respondents.
**) Converted using current exchange rate of US$ 1 = Rp 8,500
After Murdiyarso et al. (2003)
Among extractable natural resources, significant contribution is provided by fisheries, followed by
timber products. Wooden roofing is a common peat forest product in East Kalimantan and less
common in Sumatra but high economic value of jelutung timber (Dyera costulata) and resin is
typical of Sumatra.
Large scale plantation companies, however, are now finding the peatland areas increasingly
attractive for various reasons. Large contiguous areas are still available in the peatlands, where
low population densities offer less conflict. In Riau alone, PT Riau Andalan Pulp and Paper,
committed to establish 350,000 ha of industrial tree plantations in supporting the fiber
requirements of the mills, with an installed capacity of 2 metric tonne per year, Lorenzo and
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Munoz (2003). The plantation was started in 1994 following deforestation and land clearing of
peat forests.
Indigenous knowledge and technology transfer
Indigenous Knowledge has to be tapped in order to conserve Central Kalimantan peat swamps.
Indigenous knowledge involves understanding, appreciation and benefits of genetic resources by
the community, maintenance of wetland resources, water allocation, maintenance of plants,
maintenance of fishing, livestock, and others. Aside from that local knowledge in the field, sociocultural aspects have to be given particular attention in the conservation of peat swamps in
Central Kalimantan. All local knowledge is sometimes blended so that it is the main
technological knowledge source in conserving peat swamps wisely and sustainable through the
expansion of technology in a participatory manner.
Participatory expansion of technology compliments Indigenous Knowledge in that it gives the
choice of outside technology using the process of community consensus. The community is
invited to discuss the main issues that they face through dialogues among equals. This is
followed by an inventory of Indigenous Knowledge that is relevant to the problems faced. Also
considered is the possibility of using technology from other sources to solve the problems.
Problem solving with the chosen technology is done using the ‘Coba’ test method. The ‘Coba’
test is done in groups based on the similarity of problems, agro -ecosystem or socio cultural
beliefs and traditions. Results of the ‘Coba’ test will address the problems faced by the
community. Selected technological expansion on the scale of families involved in farming is done
by the community with the support of the government or other relevant bodies. So the outside
party can only expand technology that has been tested by the community. In this case, the
community possesses the ability to make decisions and can convey their voice to the relevant
authority to the extent that agricultural development in their district is suited to the carrying
capacity of the agro- ecosystem and in line with the socio cultural norms of the community.
Participatory expansion of technology is a never ending process in line with the problems faced
by the community.
Crop diversification for sustainable livelihood
There is a concept which is able to benefit a synergy of various elements of nature such as
space, air water and solar energy. Integration of livestock with crops is always carried out
whenever possible. Crops or waste products from farmland is made into livestock food and
livestock waste in the form of urine and faeces, and other waste is made into materials for organic
decomposition for its ability to rejuvenate soil fertility either physically or chemically. The culture
of mixing varieties of natural elements and waste products into planting of crops prevents the risk
of failure. Planting padi with introduction of fish is a practical and sustainable method.
Diversification of resources especially that originates from locally available organic matter is one
of the features for the capacity for sustainability.
Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)
Participatory Rural Appraisal has to be carried in order that project implementing agency and the
community will be able to work closely to ensure similarity in understanding and the
opportunities that are available, able to develop ideas for joint activities, strengthen the capacity
of the farmer to analyse the situation, provide a base for the community’s ability in participative
activities in the future.
In the PRA process, the project implementation team must realise that the community is not
homogenous, must show care and realise who does what in the community. In this case, the
cooperation of the community must be sincerely observed. This effort will encourage the process
of trouble shooting and the opportunities through exchange of ideas to identify problems, find the
source of the problem, and determine the priorities of the problem. There is a need to differentiate
between the symptom and the problem for example plant yields and production that is decreasing
could be the symptom of the diminishing fertility of the wetland or peat swamp area. Aside from
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that bias must also be avoided for example choosing a location because it is easy to survey, elite
group bias, gender bias, production bias and so on.
Trade-offs and constraints in PSF of Indonesia
The roles of peatland ecosystems in supporting local livelihoods, regulating regional hydrology
and global climate are obvious, and yet there is no clear market-based mechanisms regarding the
maintenance or conservation of the ecosystems to be utilized in sustainable manners. If treebased, monoculture plantation turns out to be more profitable than the current practices, the local
communities who live in and around peatland areas may be interested in plantation development
as an alternative livelihood source. There is no evidence, however, that such a large-scale
project does not displace small-scale operations even with little compensation. Trade-offs
between increased production/yields and poverty are yet to be envisaged and demonstrated.
It is also important to learn that local governments are interested in the revenues and other
benefits obtainable through such development, and in improvement of local livelihoods in the
peatlands, particularly following decentralization. The main constraint here is mainly associated
with institutional problems, such as regulatory issues, property rights over lands, and local
environmental issues related to wastes, industrial effluents, water quality and soil degradation.
Tropical peatlands are very sensitive to disturbance as expressed in the nutrient cycling,
especially in dissolved carbon and nitrogen, Notohadiprawiro (1997).
Demonstrating win-win situations between climate change and sustainable development
objectives remain a huge task. The existing capacities of the local hosts as well as the awareness
of the potential investors have to be enhanced. Lessons-learned from community development
projects have to be shared to improve the understanding. Trade-offs between global and local
objectives has to be exercised starting from small-scale projects. Plausible options of large scale
plantation for fiber supply to enter global agenda should further consider the social, economical
and environmental risks into account as suggested by Murdiyarso et al. (2002).
Problems in relocation schemes for agriculture
The basic challenge of a relocation project is to assist people who have no experience with
peatlands and few resources to manage a resource that requires high levels of inputs and
knowledge to cultivate. Additionally, these are people who are somewhat traumatized and
dispirited by their experiences as victims of ethnic conflict, forced from their homes and losing
many of their possessions. The project must be able to supply some of the required inputs and
some of the required technical knowledge but one year time frame is not sufficient to see it
through. For instance, one basic challenge has been how to correct the low fertility and acidity of
the soil. While there is a possibility to supply lime and chicken manure in the short term, the
farmers will have to find their own means to improve soil fertility and correct soil acidity in the
future. Lime is expensive for the farmers in the quantities required and would be difficult to
transport, especially to certain sites which are inaccessible by car for most of the year. The next
best alternative is ash, which would exacerbate the haze problem, encourage further
deforestation and present a risk of peat soil fires. As for soil fertility, farmers do have access to
vegetative materials that can be used in composting but for the most part, do not have access to
large quantities of animal manure because livestock ownership is low. Some farmers are using
urea and other chemical fertilizers, which can exacerbate the soil acidity problem, but not all are
able to afford these materials.
INDIGENOUS PEOPLE OF PEAT SWAMP FOREST IN PENINSULAR MALAYSIA
Orang Asli villages are the closest communities living near to the boundaries of the South East
Pahang Peat Swamp Forest (SEPPSF). "Orang Asli" in Malay means “original people” or “first
people”. It is used to refer to minority aboriginal people in Peninsular Malaysia. The Orang Asli
communities in Peninsular are not homogenous. Officially, these are classified into 3 main groups
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or 18 ethnic subgroups (6 subgroups each mainly for administrative purpose). The Orang Asli
villages around the SEPPSF belong to the ethnic Jakun group.
Orang Jakun falls under the Proto Malay tribe and is believed to originated from Yunan (South
China) 2500BC. They are the second largest group in Proto Malay group after the Temuans.
Most of the Jakun people stay in South Pahang and North Johor. The Jakuns speak a dialect that
belongs to the same Austronesian family of languages as Malay. Local variations among the
Jakun communities, including dialect, are due to contacts with other groups, historical factors and
geographical location. Their social organisation is informal and loosely knit compared with their
Malay neighbour. The majority of them practice animism.
The Jakuns are mainly horticulturists and forest collectors. In terms of agriculture, they practice
has a greater element of shifting cultivation compared to the Malays. With such method, they
would stay in one place for a couple of years and then move on, returning many years later to
cultivate on the same plot. Today, some Jakuns are more settled and have taken to permanent
agricultural. Slash and burn are no longer a common practice instead, they manage their own
rubber, oil palm as well as other subsistence and cash crops.
Apart from small-scale cultivation, they also gather forest products like rattan, bamboo, wood,
resin, medicinal plants and root. Most of the product sold to middleman to sustain their income.
Hunting and fishing are important activities. They use traditional methods like bamboo traps and
fishing rods to fish; and spear or trap to hunt. The Jakuns also work as wage earners in nearby
logging companies, plantation and factories.
Traditional Non Timber Forest Products (NTFPs)
NTFPs for traditional use include a wide range of animals, fish, insects, plants and tree products
that have been utilized as food, raw materials and medicine by the Orang Asli community (i.e. the
“hunter-gatherer” type model) for centuries. Local traditional knowledge of the surrounding forests
and natural environments, such as fruiting seasons and animal behavioral patterns are passed
down through oral historical teachings. The importance of this aspect of Jakun culture is reflected
in the many plant and animal stories that are ingrained in oral folklore, and immortalized in local
legends. The types of NTFPs traditionally collected, as well as the methods of use, are consistent
throughout the local villages. However, the level of dependency on NTFPs for subsistence living
varies between villages, depending on the extent of economic development in each particular
village. The non-monetary value of traditional NTFP usage should not be discounted, as forest
products are an important source of subsistence food and medicinal products to the Orang Asli
communities.
Plants
Plants harvested from the peat swamp forest are traditionally utilised for many purposes. The
more widespread applications are as raw material for dwellings, household products and tools, as
well as sources of food and medicine. Medicinal herbs sourced from the peat swamp forests are
still used by some members of the community. However, with increasing accessibility to modern
medicine, most only rely on traditional herbs as health supplements, such as Kacip Fatimah
(Labisia pumila) which is used to increase vitality or restore women’s health after childbirth.
However, their uses are decreasing due to government-funded development (e.g. concrete
houses in resettlement schemes are replacing traditional wooden dwellings, availability of modern
medicine), as well as increasing scarcity of NTFPs due to deforestation and land use changes.
Mengkuang and Rasau (Pandanus spp.) are commonly used to make a wide variety of
handicrafts for daily use e.g. baskets (lajot) for storing and collecting harvests, mats (tikar), and
pouches (sumpit) for storing beetle nut and tobacco. The handicrafts come in a wide range of
shapes and sizes, with many different patterns. This seems to be a dying art, as the majority of
the younger generation is not interested in learning the craft of weaving.
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Traditional Jakun houses are constructed wholly using forest products, e.g. wild durian (Durio
carinatus) timber is used for flooring, Merawan (Hopea sp.) bark is used for walls, and Serdang
(Pholidocarpus sp.) or Palas (Licuala sp.) leaves for roofing. This usage is still common especially
in villages which yet to have housing assistance.
Rattan is traditionally used to make tools and household products such as fish traps (lukah, bubu)
and sieves. For the types of rattan that are harvested from the forests.
Wildlife
Hunting for subsistence is still widely practiced. The wildlife species commonly targeted in
SEPPSF are the wild boars (Sus scrofa), deer species (Pelandok, kancil and kijang) and monitor
lizards (Varanus sp.). Wild boars, or babi hutan, are common occurrence in the SEPPSF and the
adjacent oil palm plantation schemes, and are viewed as crop pests, especially to the tapioca
plantations. Monitor lizards are in abundance and are hunted predominantly in the oil palm
estates fringing the SEPPSF. The common traditional hunting methods include the use of hunting
dogs and spears.
While a wide variety of other wildlife species (such as snakes, turtles and terrapins, sun bears
and squirrels) were hunted and eaten in the past, very few individuals among the local Orang Asli
community still admit to this now, indicating that they may capture these species only when they
find them by chance. One possible reason for this response is that they perceive themselves as
being less civilized if they do consume such exotic species as compared to the easy availability of
chicken, beef and other farmed meat from the night markets and traders who enter the villages.
Fish are an important source of dietary protein for the Orang Asli community living in the fringes
of SEPPSF and their associated waterways. Most household members, including the elders,
women and children engage in fishing activities. 43 consumed fish species were recorded from
local information . The most common edible fish species are:





Puyu (Anabas testudineus);
Kepar (species unknown);
Haruan (Channa striata);
Keli (Clarias sp.); and
Tapah (Wallago leerii).
Local villagers are known to fish in the canals, ditches and swamp forest shallow pools, as well as
in the two major rivers (Sg. Bebar and Sg. Merchong) and their associated tributaries, which
transverses SEPPSF. Fishing for subsistence purposes is generally sustainable as low-yield
extraction methods are used. The common methods include hook and line, tajol (i.e. tying a
baited line to overhanging branch) or nelok, and lukah (fish trap. The nelok method is commonly
used to catch keli (catfish) in the swampy areas, with a baited hook placed in flooded openings
beneath stilt roots or tree stumps.
The most common species of wild birds reared as pets in cages are:



Blue-crowned hanging parrot (Loricus galgulus)
Spotted dove (Streptopelia chinensis)
Peaceful dove (Geopelia striata )
Jungle fowl (Gallus gallus) is also commonly caught for consumption. Only a few species of
mammals are kept as pets, including the Pig-tailed macaque (Macaca nemestrina) and the
Common Palm Civet (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus). However, the Orang Asli Jakun do
occasionally keep rare species such as the Malayan Sun Bear and turtle species (mainly Asian
Box Turtle Cuora ambionensis).
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Commercial Trade of Biological Resources
Medicinal herbs are traded in small quantities, probably due to the scant demand for lesserknown herbs apart from Tongkat Ali (Eurycoma longifolia, locally known as Tongkat Ali Melayu or
Pasak Bumi), Kacip Fatimah and Ubi jaga (unknown species). Even so, demand for Tongkat Ali
has dropped drastically due to growing supply from commercial plantations. The locals claim that
another species, known only as Tongkat Ali Asli (Semecarpus rufovelutinous), which grows in the
peat swamp forest has more effective and potent values as compared to the common Tongkat Ali
Melayu.
Rattan species collected from peat swamp forest include Rotan dahan (Korthalsia flagellaris),
Rotan semambu (Calamus scipionum), and Rotan tawar (Calamus sp.). These are sold
unprocessed to middlemen who either collect them after harvest from the villages or the
middlemen themselves will hire contract local workers to collect in areas where rattan species are
known to be abundant.
Many the Jakuns are currently involved or have previous experience in the rattan trade.
Middlemen who are commonly referred to as towkay rotan who control the trade. There are many
towkay rotans in operation, some coming from as far as the states of Johor and Terengganu and
as near as the town of Mentakab in Pahang. There are two main mechanisms in the rattan trade.
The main one is whereby the towkay rotan comes into the villages to enlist workers. He then
transports the workers to sites at some distance from the village for extended collection trips (see
Box 1). The other is whereby the villagers collect in their own spare time in the forests located
nearby the village, and then sell them to the middleman during his collection rounds.
Box 1: Towkay rotan – modus operandi
When the towkay rotan comes into the village to collect the workers, he will loan their families some
‘upfront fees’ (around RM50) for their living expenses while the breadwinners are away. The towkay
will then transport the workers to the forest areas with abundant rattan (mainly hill forests, as far as
Terengganu for rotan manau). He will provide their daily meals and the workers set up camp in the
forest. The team will stay there for periods between three weeks and three months, usually working in
teams of three people. The towkay will then purchase the rattan harvested according to a fixed rate
depending on the rattan species. The workers’ income depends on the amount and quality of rattan
harvested. The middleman deducts the amount the worker owes him for the cost of meals, transport,
and ‘upfront fees’ loans from the rattan income. Often there is not enough individual income to cover
the costs, and the workers will return home empty-handed, or in debt to the towkay rotan.
Asam kelubi (Eleiodoxa conferta) is found exclusively in SEPPSF. According to local information,
the fruits of asam kelubi are harvested once a year either for personal consumption or for
roadside and middleman sales. The average price is about RM0.70 per kilogram. While there are
mixed local reports on its status of abundance, most of the local people agreed that there are too
many people harvesting the fruits in the wild within SEPPSF. It takes about a year for the fruit to
mature from its flowers, and these fruits need to be harvested at an appropriate period. If they are
harvested too early, they will have too little pith and tastes too sour. If they are harvested very late
into their fruiting season, they will go bad.
In addition, Nipah (Nypa fructicans), which grows along the brackish water reaches of Sg. Bebar
and Sg. Merchong, where the fronds are collected in almost all the villages near the coastal side
of SEPPSF for processing and sale as cigarette wrappers, and used for roof thatching of huts.
Trade of wildife species
These wildlife trade middlemen operate somewhat differently from the plant trade middlemen, in
that the Orang Asli suppliers will inform them only when substantial species have been caught
due to the uncertainties associated with the hunting and trapping activities.
6
A number of wildlife species were observed to be frequently and openly sold at the village trade
stalls. The following are examples of the range of wildlife trade in these places:




Leopard cat (Felis bengalensis) cubs are sold in Kg. Wawah fetching easily RM60 per
pair. These cubs, normally caught in the oil palm estates but known to stray from peat
swamp ecosystems, can be domesticated only when trained from a young age.
Crested Partridges (Rollulus rouloul), which are considered to be a rare species, are sold
at RM75.
Common palm civets (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus) are commonly sold in these stalls.
A few wildlife associated products are sold in the village stalls, including Siak (Ploceus
philippinus) nests, which are popular decorative items among the Malays, such as tapir
tooth .
Birds and Mammals
The hill myna (Gracula religiosa) and serindit (Loricus galgulus) are the most common bird
species sold at these stalls. Hill mynas are by far the most expensive, with young males fetching
up to RM200/bird.
Box 2: Bird trapping methods
Two common methods are used to trap birds in the peat swamp. The first is by using a cage trap
(made from rattan, bamboo or wood) with a female bird and food source (oil palm seeds, fruits) as
bait. The trap may be designed to have up to 12 individual trap doors. It is placed high in a tree and
collected overnight. Using glue makes the second method from resin of the Terap (Artocarpus sp.)
tree. The glue is either wiped onto a tree branch, or tipped onto a blunt blow dart, both methods aimed
at preventing it from flying freely.
According to the local information, there are also trade in species such as the Malayan Sun Bear
(Helarctos malayanus).
Reptiles
There are reports that they trap turtles/terrapins and various other wildlife species. Weekly
middleman visits does indicate a consistent supply of these resources, but the harvesters are
already concerned about the diminishing supply in the wild. At least three different species of
turtles/terappins are trapped/harvested for sale.
According to the local information, the trade in species such as reticulated python (Python
reticulatus) is conducted with the middlemen who come into villages to collect these resources
from specific contacts. The price of reticulated python is said to have dropped significantly, and
therefore deemed no longer worth the efforts for local people to harvest.
Commercial Fishing
Commercial fishing activity is confined to those villages located nearby the major river systems,
namely Sg. Bebar and Sg. Merchong and their associated tributaries. The yield is seasonal, with
the highest yields obtained during the monsoon period from October to December.
While Ikan Tapah is believed to be able to reach 20 kg in weight, it should be noted that small to
medium sized (3-4 kilogram). Tapah fetch the highest prices, due to the quality of meat at that
specified weight. Peak season runs from September to January. Fish catch over this period is
supposedly able to net 3-4 tons over this season, and 20-30 kilogram per month during the rest of
the year. At a maximum selling price of RM10 per kilogram, a maximum of RM 40,000 can be
made during the peak season alone.
Box 3: Lukah
Lukahs are traditional fish traps, similar to the bubu used by Malay fishermen. A much larger
version of the lukah is used here, made from conical nylon nets (6 inch wide openings) with its
7
opening spread perpendicularly across the river, supported at the surface by bamboo poles and
weighted to the bottom by rocks placed in the closed end. Inside this netting is smaller
cylindrical netting with a small open end. Fishes wider than the netting diameter will be caught in
between the two netting layers while swimming upstream.
During the peak season between October and December the number of Orang Asli community
who live in the boathouses along tributaries of the main river increase to 20 households. During
non-peak months, only several fishermen remain. They claim to make a very low income during
off-peak months, but would rather stay by the river and make out meager living than live in the
villages. Four species of commercially valuable fish are primarily targeted, and are outlined in
Table 2.
Table 2: Commercially valuable fish species and market prices
Common name
Tapah
Toman
Bujuk
Baung
1USD= 3.8RM
Species name
Wallago leerii
Ophicephalus micropeltes
Ophicephalus lucius
Mystus spp.
Market price
(per kilo) in Ringgit
Malaysia (RM)
RM 5-15
RM 3
RM 6
RM10
Fishing methods are confined to hook, rod and line (pancing or tajol). Traditional wooden boats
(perahus) are used, as well as some fiberglass boats with engines supplied by the middlemen.
People from outside the area carry out fish poisoning on a regular basis. Tuba induced fishing is
used by locals traditionally.
The prawn (udang galah) is caught in the lower reaches of Sg. Bebar. Their catch is reported to
be seasonal, with the peak season lasting for only two months (May and June). Hook and line is
used, as well as prawn traps made from durian hutan (Durio carinatus) tree bark. Udang galah
fetch a high market price (RM20/kg) but an average of only 0.5 - 1 kg in volume can be caught
per day.
Market-driven economy
While few of the Orang Asli individuals view themselves as full time collectors, most of those
involved in the trade consider it as work to earn pocket money to supplement their subsistence
lifestyle. To most, gathering forest resources is preferred because the work is well suited to the
Orang Asli lifestyle (with no supervision or set schedules), and skill and educational levels.
In most cases, the Jakuns are the primary suppliers of wild products in and around SEPPSF. As
there is little or no value added to the products, prices they receive are relatively low. Since
personal profits depend on collection volume, there is an incentive for higher extraction rates. The
Jakuns are aware that trade in NTFPs especially in wildlife, do require special licenses to
operate. However, the common perception is that it is within their traditional right to exploit these
natural resources to support their livelihood. They depend on the middlemen largely as they lack
market access for their harvest, large vehicles to transport the large loads, as well as the
business acumen.
WISE USE OF PEATLANDS AT PHRU KUAN KRENG, SOUTHERN THAILAND
The livelihood of local people in the peat swamp is agriculture which is suited to the specific
environmental conditions. Rice farming was carried out by ploughing the land using water
8
buffaloes in the 1960s. The paddy seedlings were sown without transplanting, but weed removal
was carried out. The productivity was about 300 kilograms per rai (6.25rais = 1hectare) More
cows were reared than buffaloes and the number is increasing since 1970s; however, problems
of epidemic diseases periodically arose. Large amounts of Lepironia articulata were harvested for
weaving into containers i.e. Lepironia articulata sacks and mats which became important
products. Shrimps were caught to make shrimp paste and put into Lepironia articulata sacks in
order to sell or exchange with outside villages.
The present main occupation of villagers is rice farming. In addition, some of them harvest
Lepironia articulata, and also carry on weaving of reeds, fishery and animal grazing. In certain
villages where adequate water supply through irrigation schemes are available, three padi
harvests a year is possible. Commercial plant species grown are rubber, vegetables and fruit
trees (coconut, mango). Fisheries is a supplementary occupation where it comprises of capture
fishing in natural water bodies and aquaculture. Eels are caught by eel traps made of bamboo
poles. Culture of freshwater fish is supported by development projects by government authorities
to ensure sufficient sources of protein for local people instead of relying on capture fisheries
which has reduced progressively in the last 10 years. Species that are culture are Clarias
macrocephalus, Trichogaster sp. (gouramy) and Clarias batrachus (walking catfish).
Reed harvesting
Lepironia articulata (tube sedge) grows naturally in the peat swamp forests. It is an important
reed that is harvested by the locals who get paid 25 baht per bundle of 1.4 metres long of
Lepironia. The reed is woven into mats, bags, hats and sacks. The women involved in weaving
of mats are older while those involved in weaving of bags are generally young females. The
making of mats requires very skilled manpower. The market price of the Lepironia products in
shops and department stores are generally 3-4 times more than that received by the individual
craft maker.
In the past, local people only harvested the Lepironia reed by digging it up. The digging –up
method can help in the preservation of the reed because it does not cause the reed to die and is
proven to be a sustainable method. The reed can grow again quickly after digging up. In the last
3 years the demand for Lepironia products have risen through the support and marketing efforts
of Tourism Thailand, and this has made the local people use a sickle to cut the Lepironia reeds to
match the high demand for the Lepironia -made craft. The effect of the difference in harvesting
methods of Lepironia is noticeable as there has been a rapid decrease in the natural growth of
Lepironia articulata using the cutting method.
Animal Grazing
Cattle farming is common in the peat swamp areas where each farmer may have 40-50 cows
and more buffaloes than cows. During low water table and the dry season the animals graze on
natural marsh and grassy areas around the peat swamp forest. During the flooding season, the
farmers confine the cattle to graze on fenced up areas on higher ground. The buffaloes are
however able to feed on the reed Eleocharis ochrostachys under water.
Cattle owners perceive that it is a necessary occupation that generates income when a lump sum
is required for payment of debts, fees for children education, so it is seen as equivalent to
savings in a bank.
Melaleuca cajeputi ( paper bark tree) grows quite well in the peat swamp forest and the timber is
used for construction of houses, repair and making fences. In the 1960s the wood of this species
was used for charcoal production before gas for cooking became readily available. In JulyAugust farmers collect honey from bee hives of the Melaleuca trees and to a lesser extent from
rubber trees.
Problems encountered in the resource use of peat swamp areas in South Thailand
Livelihood from fisheries in the peat swamp had brought good income in the past but this has
drastically reduced due to unsustainable methods resulting from electro-fishing, use of
poisons(cyanide) and cast nets. Fisheries resources have degraded and this has attributed to
high debt burden of the local community. The local people’s main livelihood in and around the
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peat swamp is rice farming which is a low income generation activity. It has been found that a
family that grows rice twice a year will earn three times lower than a labourer’s minimum wage
per month.
It can be concluded that the people’s poverty and lack of awareness will lead to over exploitation
of resources especially fish and Lepironia articulata reed beds. The concepts of ‘ecosystem’,
‘conservation’ and ‘wise use’ of resource are not clearly understood by the people and the local
government administrative authorities.
References
Murdiyarso, D., Widodo, M. & Suyamto, D. (2002) Fire risks in forest carbon project in Indonesia.
Journal Science in China. Vol. 45. Supp.:65-74.
Notohadiprawiro, T. (1997) Twenty-five experience in peatland development for agriculture in
Indonesia. In: J. Rieley & S.E. Page (eds). Proc. of the Int. Symp. on Biodiversity, Environmental
Importance and Sustainability of Tropical Peat and Peatland. UK. pp. 301-310.
Lorenzo, E.P. & Munoz, C.P. (2003) Where fire is not essential – a model of a no burn best
practice during land preparation in tree plantation development in Indonesia. Workshop on Fires
in Peatlands: Problems and solutions. Palembang, 10-11 December, 2003. CIFOR/ICRAF/EU/
ACIAR/Wetlands International/Government of South Sumatra.
Murdiyarso, D., Suryadiputra N. & Wahyunto (2003) Tropical peatlands management and
climate change: A case study in Sumatra, Indonesia. Workshop on Wise Use and Sustainable
Peatlands Management Practices. Bogor, 13 – 14 October, 2003.
Acknowledgements
I would like to acknowledge the UNDP/GEF funded project MAL/99/G31- Conservation and
Sustainable Use of Tropical Peat Swamp Forests and Associated Wetland Ecosystems. SouthEast Pahang Peat Swamp Forest, Multidisciplinary Assessment (MDA), December 2003 for the
kind permission to use the findings in this paper.
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