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ETHICAL THEORIES : A REFLECTION
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Vanessa Claudja P. Carlos
A Requirement for Paul Amerigo Pajo’s IT-Ethic Class
De La Salle – College of Saint Benilde
Abstract
This book is a consolidated collection of opinions on the Ethical Theories, a
chapter from a book assigned to the students of IT-Ethic Section O0B, advised by Mr.
Paul Amerigo Pajo. Works written by James Rachels, John Arthur, Friedrich Nietzche
and the like are studied and analyzed and some are criticized by the author of this book.
2|Ethical Theories : A Reflection
Dedication
I dedicate this book to the following:
My dearest family, who always believes in me;
My sweetest friends, who never fails to keep me sane in this crazy world;
Lastly, I dedicate this book to the Almighty Father,
for everything else is nothing without You.
3|Ethical Theories : A Reflection
Chapter I
Egoism and Moral Scepticism
James Rachels
Amazon Reference:
http://www.amazon.com/Contemporary-Moral-Problems-JamesWhite/dp/0495553204/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1235694270&sr=8-1
Quote:
But suppose we were to concede, for the sake of the argument, that all
voluntary action is motivated by the agent’s wants, or at least that Smith is so
motivated. Even if this were granted, it would not follow that Smith is acting
selfishly or from self-interest.
What I expect to learn:
The causes and effects of egoism and how morality can be related to it
Review:
According to Instruct West Valley, “Psychological egoism is the claim that people always
act selfishly, to foster their own self-interest or happiness. Psychological hedonism is the claim
that people always act to attain their own pleasure and avoid pain. Psychological hedonism is
also called the “pleasure principle.” This pretty much sums up what James Rachel has been
discussing in this article. Admittedly I was confused at first, but after reading the case for the
second time, I was enlightened. It was a trivial thing and I was challenged.
Egoism is something that does not need an explanation – we all know what ego is and
what it is all about, right? Ego is something we can all have; it is something we can lack as well.
Nevertheless it is something very powerful as it can make a person who he is. It can build up
walls or build up relationships. Too much of it can suffocate a human being and cover up his
whole being, while too little of it can break a person’s soul and his belief.
What I learned:
o
What morality is
o
What psychological skepticism is
4|Ethical Theories : A Reflection
o
What ethical egoism is
Integrative Questions:
1.
What is an obligation?
2.
What is morality all about?
3.
What is ethical egoism and how is it connected to morality?
5|Ethical Theories : A Reflection
Chapter II
Religion, Morality, and Conscience
John Arthur
Amazon Reference:
http://www.amazon.com/Contemporary-Moral-Problems-JamesWhite/dp/0495553204/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1235694270&sr=8-1
Quote:
Typically, the argument begins with the important point that doing what is right often has
costs: refusing to shoplift or cheat can mean people go without some good or fail a test;
returning a billfold means they don’t get the contents.
What I expect to learn:
The true definition of religion, morality and conscience, and how they are all related to
each other
Review:
Religion is a delicate issue – it’s something no one can deny. But what is religion
anyway? According to Wikipedia, “A religion is a set of beliefs concerning the cause, nature,
and purpose of the universe, especially when considered as the creation of a supernatural
agency or agencies, usually involving devotional and ritual observances, and often containing a
moral code governing the conduct of human affairs.” Princeton Online has defined morality as
“concern with the distinction between good and evil or right and wrong; right or good conduct”.
Conscience, however, is defined by Princeton Online as “motivation deriving logically from
ethical or moral principles that govern a person's thoughts and actions”. So how are these three
interrelated?
See, one’s religion is his own belief – and since we are human and we have our right to
choose what we want, this is how religion, in my own opinion, becomes obsolete – we just name
a certain culture we follow, but religion is not important if there is no faith. Morality is something
we obtain as we grow up, and so is conscience. All we really have to do is to connect these
three – your faith and your belief will affect how you are and what you think is right and wrong.
It’s all really up to you in the end. We make our own destiny. It all depends on the experiences
6|Ethical Theories : A Reflection
we go through life. All we need to know is simple – what do we stand for? Why are we here;
why do we exist? What is our purpose in life? When we look for the answers deep in our hearts,
we will see the light.
What I learned:

What religion is

What faith is

Morality and its connection with religion

Conscience and where it comes from
Integrative Questions:
1.
How are religion, morality and conscience connected?
2.
What are the similarities between them?
3.
What are the differences between them?
4.
Is it possible to have only one or two of the three?
7|Ethical Theories : A Reflection
Chapter III
Master and Slave Morality
Friedrich Nietzche
Amazon Reference:
http://www.amazon.com/Contemporary-Moral-Problems-JamesWhite/dp/0495553204/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1235694270&sr=8-1
Quote:
The cowardly, the timid, the insignificant, and those thinking merely of narrow
utility are despised; moreover, also the distrustful, with their constrained
glances, the self-abasing, the dog-like kind of men who let themselves be
abused, the mendicant flatterers, and above all the liars – it is a fundamental
belief of all aristocrats that the common people are untruthful.
What I expect to learn:
What master and slave morality is and why it is even present in the world today
Review:
Being able to hear about this master and slave morality, I was curious – what does this
master and slave morality talk about? Is it in general or is it talking about something else
specifically? The thing is, whether we admit it or not, master and slave morality truly is present
today, and all we can ever do is to live in it. The sad thing in this world is that most people think
that money makes the world go around. If you believe in something and put your heart in it, it
will come true – and if money’s importance is somehow the universal law, everybody – all
people will eventually live in a world where this is the rule, and no one is exempted.
“Be the change you want to see.” Mahatma Gandhi said this. A true Lasallian would
know that. If that is the case, why not change the world and start with ourselves? Need I not say
how unfair and how morally wrong it is to believe and carry on with the master and slave
morality? We are all human and we are all created by God equally. No one is set to be above
us, only Him. This is primarily why we should always keep in mind and understand that the
master and slave morality cannot go on. In order to live peacefully, we need to be at peace with
our environment, and this is not possible if we continue to do so.
8|Ethical Theories : A Reflection
All we really need to do is to look into ourselves, and remember that we should not do
unto others what we do not want others to do unto us. Once we follow this rule and live
peacefully and equally, and when we finally extinguish the master and slave morality, the world
will be a better place – don’t you think so?
What I learned:
o
What makes the master the master and what makes the slave a slave
o
How the master and slave morality is born
o
What the desire of power can do
Integrative Questions:
1.
What is the master and slave morality?
2.
What is corruption?
3.
What separates the master and the slave?
9|Ethical Theories : A Reflection
Chapter IV
Trying Out One’s New Sword
Mary Midgley
Amazon Reference:
http://www.amazon.com/Contemporary-Moral-Problems-JamesWhite/dp/0495553204/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1235694270&sr=8-1
Quote:
“We cannot criticize cultures that we do not understand”
What I expect to learn:
I honestly didn’t know what to expect in this article. The title was a little vague for me and
finding out what I’m about to learn about was certainly a treat for me.
Review:
To be honest, upon reading the title “Trying Out One’s Sword” for the first time, I didn’t
really know what I’d learn. I was very much curious how this title could lead to something
ethical. I was staring blankly at the title for about 5 minutes, then when I started reading the
article, I couldn’t stop. So that’s what it was, I later found out, what the title was all about. I was
shocked, I have to admit.
The Japanese had this thing they call “tsugijiri”. This is when a Japanese tries out his
sword into another man’s body – literally. To add to this, the person whose body has been “tried
out” on brings shame and humiliation to his family once the sword goes through his body. Upon
reading this, I remember trying to look back and see if there was anything I may have read
incorrectly. I must have made a mistake, I thought. The Japanese couldn’t be this bad. Then it
suddenly dawned on me, what Midgley was trying to show us in this article – cultures are
different in this world. This is what separates a country, a tribe, or even a small group of people
–and we cannot judge another just because this is what he believes in. We just have to respect
that in order to live harmoniously in this world.
“Do not judge the book by its cover” is the best saying that could be related to this topic.
We are human, we are different and we are unique. He made us this way. All we have to do is
respect that thought.
10 | E t h i c a l T h e o r i e s : A R e f l e c t i o n
What I learned:
o
What cultures are
o
What tsugijiri is
o
What Midgley’s main point is
Integrative Questions:
1.
What is culture?
2.
What is “tsugijiri”? What country practices this?
11 | E t h i c a l T h e o r i e s : A R e f l e c t i o n
Chapter VI
The Debate Over Utilitarianism
James Rachels
Amazon Reference:
http://www.amazon.com/Contemporary-Moral-Problems-JamesWhite/dp/0495553204/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1235694270&sr=8-1
Quote:
Hedonism is perennially popular theory that goes back at least as far as the ancient
Greeks. It has always been an attractive theory because of its beautiful simplicity and
because it expresses the intuitively plausible notion that things are good or bad only on
account of the way they make us feel.
What I expect to learn:
To be aware of the positive and negative points of utilitarianism
Review:
After been reading the earlier article defining what utilitarianism is all about, I have come
to the conclusion that morally, utilitarianism is wrong – and this what this debate is all about,
really - the battle between morality and practicality. Let us refresh our minds first and define,
once more, what utilitarianism is. Wikipedia defined Utilitarianism as “a system of ethics based
on the premise that something's value may be measured by its usefulness. Utilitarianism is the
idea that the moral worth of an action is determined solely by its utility in providing happiness or
pleasure as summed among all sentient beings. It is thus a form of consequentialism, meaning
that the moral worth of an action is determined by its outcome. Utilitarianism is often described
by the phrase "the greatest good for the greatest number of people", and is also known as "the
greatest happiness principle". Utility, the good to be maximized, has been defined by various
thinkers as happiness or pleasure (versus suffering or pain), although preference utilitarians
define it as the satisfaction of preferences. It may be described as a life stance, with happiness
or pleasure being of ultimate importance.”
This is really what ethics is all about. According to Wikipedia, “Ethics (also known as
moral philosophy) is a branch of philosophy which seeks to address questions about morality;
12 | E t h i c a l T h e o r i e s : A R e f l e c t i o n
that is, about concepts such as good and bad, right and wrong, justice, and virtue” Mentally, the
battle between the god and bad points of utilitarianism is epic – both have great points. All this
really depends on, to be blunt, is a person’s definition of this – what he believes maybe right and
wrong, and what he thinks should be given emphasis. It depends on a person’s belief. Either
way, utilitarianism can be applied in a different way, in your own way.
What I learned:
o
The bad parts of utilitarianism
o
How utilitarianism is an immoral belief
o
What the good parts of utilitarianism are
Integrative Questions:
1.
What are the good and bad parts of utilitarianism?
2.
How is utilitarianism an immoral belief?
3.
How are the good and bad parts of utilitarianism important?
13 | E t h i c a l T h e o r i e s : A R e f l e c t i o n
Chapter VII:
Categorical Imperative
Immanuel Kant
Amazon Reference:
http://www.amazon.com/Contemporary‐Moral‐Problems‐James‐White/dp/0534584306/
Quote:
“Indeed, a man without any sympathy at all would scarcely be recognizable as a man…”
What I expect to learn:
I expect to learn about how we define morality and how each person’s views of what
morality is differs.
Review:
Immanuel Kant, being a famous philosopher, writing several books on morality such as
Groundworks of the Metaphysic of Morals, Critique of Practical Reason and Metaphysics of
Morals, really is popular for a reason – one of the things he has explained and taught us all, the
categorical imperative, can actually make a difference in this world. I believe that if we all
practice this, then world peace will really be possible. I believe that the categorical imperative
can change the world and give us all a bite and a clear understanding of what is right and wrong
without saying a word. This can give us all a hands on experience of what should and what we
shouldn’t do.
The categorical imperative practices the bible verse, “Do not do unto others what you do
not want others to do unto you.” It tells us, to quote the book – which we should act only
according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it would become a universal
law. It tells us that before we do or say something, we should try to visualize a world where
whatever we do, the situation can be fixed for everybody. What if we opted to trash the
environment altogether? What would happen? Would it affect us? How would we react to this?
However there is what we call as hypothetical imperative. This is evident when the good
thing we do is not good in itself, as it is good only for something else.
14 | E t h i c a l T h e o r i e s : A R e f l e c t i o n
The article, though quite long, was definitely worth it. I am sure that if more people
understood this and applied this, then there would be less misunderstandings and problems in
the world. Amazing, right?
What I Learned:

What categorical imperative is

What good will is and what its real importance is

What the difference of categorical and hypothetical imperative is
Integrative Questions:
1. What is categorical imperative?
2. What is hypothetical imperative?
3. How would you differentiate the two imperatives?
15 | E t h i c a l T h e o r i e s : A R e f l e c t i o n
Chapter VIII:
Happiness and Virtue
Aristotle
Amazon Reference:
http://www.amazon.com/Loving-Fine-Virtue-Happiness-Aristotles/dp/0268034028
Quote:
“Happiness, therefore, must be some form of contemplation…”
What I expect to learn:
I expect to learn what happiness really is and how to get there as well.
Review:
To be honest, reading the title of the article, my attention was caught in a snap.
Happiness and Virtue, I thought, was a great name for an article. I’m a 19-year-old teenager,
after all, with a young, innocent mind, still confused on what life has to offer. Needless to say, I
grabbed my coffee mug and read the night away.
I remember, as a freshman during my high school days, one of the sections was named
after Aristotle. I asked myself, what could this man have done or contributed to the world that he
was that famous? Apparently, Aristotle was able to define happiness and tell us how important it
is, what it can do, what are the true factors to it and what other things are related to it. He may
not have invented electricity or something as big as the Internet, but he was able to define
something far more useful and significant for us humans to survive this crazy, mixed up world –
with this, he was able to keep most people sober. After reading the article, I thought of
everything I read, and I smiled. He was right. I mean, of course he was – how could this guy be
wrong? What I’m trying to say, simply put – Happiness really is the ultimate good. It is the
highest form of good. While many say that money gives people happiness, true happiness
comes as it is complete and it is self-sufficient. Much like a circle, no?
Happiness is absolute. It is the source of everything good, because once you are happy,
then doing good deeds come naturally. Because of this, happiness is worth honor. There are
three types of goods: external, those of the soul and those of the body. Those of the soul are
most important, and a person's actions fall into this category.
16 | E t h i c a l T h e o r i e s : A R e f l e c t i o n
So what gives us happiness? It is simple. Humans were put in this world for a reason –
and all we have to do, to be happy, is to act according to that reason. This process is what we
call virtuosity – thus linking happiness and virtuosity, finally. We become happy when we are
virtuous. Simply put, yet when thought of, that sentence completes a life-long search for the true
and guaranteed secret to happiness.
What I Learned:

The true definition of happiness

How virtuosity and happiness are related

How to be happy
Integrative Questions:
4. Define happiness and virtuosity.
5. What do you need to be happy?
6. What are the 3 types of goods?
17 | E t h i c a l T h e o r i e s : A R e f l e c t i o n
Chapter IX:
The Nature and Value of Rights
Joel Feinberg
Amazon Reference:
http://www.amazon.com/Contemporary-Moral-Problems-JamesWhite/dp/0495553204/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1235694270&sr=8-1
Quote:
“But suppose we were to concede, for the sake of the argument, that all voluntary action
is motivated by the agent’s wants, or at least that Smith is so motivated. Even if this
were granted, it would not follow that Smith is acting selfishly or from self-interest.”
What I expect to learn:
I expect to learn the importance of rights and what they are or how they are made.
Review:
Feinberg maybe the least popular in this week’s set, but he is far from the least enjoying
topic of this week. Especially that we are taking up BUSLAW this term, this topic is very much
interesting for me.
The thing is, with billions of people living in this world, we do need rules and we do have
duties to follow and do in order to preserve harmony. We might moan and rant about it but we
cannot erase the face that they are there and we need to follow them. We need to respect them
and believe them, because if we run away from them, there will be certain consequences we
have to face. That is the truth and that is the law. We all have to understand that and take it in,
in order to survive.
These duties we are talking about require us to be committed to practicing them and
following them. We have to take all of these in our hearts and make a promise to follow them.
There might be sacrifices that follow but we all have to remember that this is for the better good.
It’s as simple and easy as that, to be honest.
Along with the duties and responsibilities come our rights. See, they are there for a
reason – to balance and harmonize with our responsibilities, to remind us that we are all human
18 | E t h i c a l T h e o r i e s : A R e f l e c t i o n
and we need a break every once in a while. This is to exercise our freedom and as well, be
reminded that we do have our limits.
What I Learned:

The importance of duties

Rights and duties: meaning, differences

Requirements of duties
Integrative Questions:
1. What is duty?
2. Do we have a right to complain?
3. How important are rights and duties?
19 | E t h i c a l T h e o r i e s : A R e f l e c t i o n
Chapter X
Taking Rights Seriously
Ronald Dworkin
Amazon Reference:
http://www.amazon.com/Contemporary-Moral-Problems-JamesWhite/dp/0495553204/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1235694270&sr=8-1
Quote:
Typically, the argument begins with the important point that doing what is right often has
costs: refusing to shoplift or cheat can mean people go without some good or fail a test;
returning a billfold means they don’t get the contents.
What I expect to learn:
How important rights are and what are the consequences once they are not followed
Review:
Wikipedia explains that rights are legal or moral entitlements or permissions. Rights are
of vital importance in theories of justice and deontological ethics. Many contemporary notions of
rights are universalist and egalitarian, with equal rights granted to all people. For instance, the
rights of a father to be respected by his son did not indicate a duty upon the father to return that
respect, and the divine right of kings to hold absolute power over their subjects did not leave
room for many rights to be granted to the subjects themselves. Conversely, modern conceptions
of rights often emphasize liberty as among the most important of rights, though conceptions of
liberty frequently differ. The specific enumeration of rights accorded to people has historically
differed greatly across space and time, and in many cases, the view of rights held by one group
can come into sharp and bitter conflict with the view of rights held by another group. At present
the question of who has what rights is normally addressed by the constitutions of the respective
nations (in the case of legal rights) or a particular philosophical theory (in the case of natural
rights).
The thing is, it is called as a right because it is one’s power, one’s privilege and all we
really need to understand that not following or abiding to these rights have consequences that
we must be willing to face. That’s something we all need to know and keep in mind because
20 | E t h i c a l T h e o r i e s : A R e f l e c t i o n
rights should always be taken seriously. These are things we cannot just mess around with, and
we have to know that.
What I learned:

What rights are

How important rights are

The consequences of not abiding to these rights
Integrative Questions:
1.
What are rights?
2.
Who dictates our rights?
3.
Why are rights so important?
21 | E t h i c a l T h e o r i e s : A R e f l e c t i o n
Chapter XI
A Theory of Justice
John Rawls
Amazon Reference:
http://www.amazon.com/Contemporary-Moral-Problems-JamesWhite/dp/0495553204/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1235694270&sr=8-1
Quote:
I shall maintain instead that the persons in the initial situation would choose two rather
different principles: the first requires equality in the assignment of basic rights and
duties, while the second holds that social and economic inequalities.
What I expect to learn:
What the theory of justice is
Review:
Justice has different meanings, depending on the perspective of the person defining it.
Princeton Online defines justice as “judgment involved in the determination of rights and the
assignment of rewards and punishments”, while Wikipedia says that justice concerns itself with
the proper ordering of things and people within a society. As a concept it has been subject to
philosophical, legal, and theological reflection and debate throughout our history. A number of
important questions surrounding justice have been fiercely debated over the course of western
history: What is justice? What does it demand of individuals and societies? What is the proper
distribution of wealth and resources in society: equal, meritocratic, according to status, or some
other arrangement? There are myriad possible answers to these questions from divergent
perspectives on the political and philosophical spectrum.
John Rawls, however, states that "Justice is the first virtue of social institutions, as truth
is of systems of thought.” The truth is, all of these definitions have the same thought. These are
all just refined and defined more of the perspective of the person trying to define it. The bottom
line is that we all just have to respect the main meaning of justice and what it is all about
because justice not only restores peace in a person’s soul but also to the world as well.
22 | E t h i c a l T h e o r i e s : A R e f l e c t i o n
What I learned:

What justice is all about

What is done to maintain justice

Importance of justice
Integrative Questions:
1.
What is justice?
2.
How important is justice?
23 | E t h i c a l T h e o r i e s : A R e f l e c t i o n
Chapter XII
The Need for More Than Justice
Annette Baier
Amazon Reference:
http://www.amazon.com/Contemporary-Moral-Problems-JamesWhite/dp/0495553204/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1235694270&sr=8-1
Quote:
It is easy to exaggerate the differences of view that exist, and I want to avoid that. The
differences are as much emphasis as in substance, or we can say that they are
differences in tone of voice. But these differences to do tend to make a difference in
approaches to a wide range of topics not just in moral theory but in areas like medical
ethics, where the discussion used to be conducted in terms of patients’ rights, of
informed consent, and so on, but now tends to get conducted in an enlarged moral
vocabulary.
What I expect to learn:
What is this “more than justice” and why there is a need for it
Review:
The thing is, once harm is done, sometimes justice is not enough. Once pain has been
emitted and the damage has been done, there really is no other way but to try to make up for it.
Riela Antonio, a graduate from CSB, has also made a review for this article and this is
what she said – “Here is what she stated: let me say quite clearly at this early point that there is
little disagreement that justice is a social value of very great importance, and in justice an evil.
Nor would those who have worked all theories of justice want to deny that other things matter
besides justice. Rawls, for example, incorporates the value of freedom into his account of
justice, so that denial of basic freedoms counts as injustice. Rawls, also leaves room for a wider
theory of the right, of which the theory of justice is just a part. I do agree to her statement
because there is more besides justice and it is not something we would expect to have every
single day which is why we fight for it, it is something we seek therefore, we act on having it.”
24 | E t h i c a l T h e o r i e s : A R e f l e c t i o n
I could not agree more than what she has stated. It is true – justice becomes evil at
times because it feeds the hunger people get when they feel that they have been betrayed. The
thing is, people should also bring out and highlight acceptance and moving on as virtues to
follow. How can peace on earth be possible without this?
What I learned:

The good and bad in justice

Importance of justice
Integrative Questions:
1.
What are the good and bad points in justice?
2.
How important is justice and it being served?
25 | E t h i c a l T h e o r i e s : A R e f l e c t i o n