Culture of KENYA
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CULTURE NAME
Kenyan
ALTERNATIVE NAMES
Jamhuri ya Kenya
ORIENTATION
Identification. The country takes its name from Mount Kenya, located in the central highlands.
Location and Geography. Kenya is located in East Africa and borders Somalia to the northeast,
Ethiopia to the north, Sudan to the northwest, Uganda to the west, Tanzania to the south, and the
Indian Ocean to the east. The country straddles the equator, covering a total of 224,961 square
miles (582,600 square kilometers; roughly twice the size of the state of Nevada). Kenya has wide
white-sand beaches on the coast. Inland plains cover three-quarters of the country; they are
mostly bush, covered in underbrush. In the west are the highlands where the altitude rises from
three thousand to ten thousand feet. Nairobi, Kenya's largest city and capital, is located in the
central highlands. The highest point, at 17,058 feet (5,200 meters), is Mount Kenya. Kenya
shares Lake Victoria, the largest lake in Africa and the main source of the Nile River, with
Tanzania and Uganda. Another significant feature of Kenyan geography is the Great Rift Valley,
the wide, steep canyon that cuts through the highlands. Kenya is also home to some of the
world's most spectacular wildlife, including elephants, lions, giraffes, zebras, antelope,
wildebeests, and many rare and beautiful species of birds. Unfortunately, the animal population
is threatened by both hunting and an expanding human population; wildlife numbers fell
drastically through the twentieth century. The government has introduced strict legislation
regulating hunting, and has established a system of national parks to protect the wildlife.
Demography. According to an estimate in July 2000, Kenya's population is 30,339,770. The
population has been significantly reduced by the AIDS epidemic, as have the age and sex
distributions of the population. Despite this scourge, however, the birth rate is still significantly
higher than the death rate and the population continues to grow.
There are more than forty ethnic groups in the country. The largest of these is the Kikuyu,
representing 22 percent of the population. Fourteen percent is Luhya, 13 percent is Luo, 12
percent is Kalenjin, 11 percent Kamba, 6 percent Kisii, and 6 percent Meru. Others, including the
Somalis and the Turkana in the north and the Kalenjin in the Great Rift Valley, comprise
approximately 15 percent of the population. These ethnic categories are further broken down into
subgroups. One percent of the population is non-African, mostly of Indian and European descent.
Linguistic Affiliation. The official languages are English and Kiswahili (or Swahili). Swahili,
which comes from the Arabic word meaning "coast," is a mix of Arabic and the African
language Bantu. It first developed in the tenth century with the arrival of Arab traders; it was a
lingua franca that allowed different tribes to communicate with each other and with the Arabs.
The major language groups native to the region include Bantu in the west and along the coast,
Nilotic near Lake Victoria, and Cushitic in the north.
English is the language generally used in government and business. It is also used in most of the
schools, although there has been movement towards using Kiswahili as the teaching language.
English is not spoken solely by the elite, but only people with a certain level of education speak
it.
Symbolism. The Kenyan flag has three horizontal stripes—red, black, and green—separated by
thin
Kenya
white bands. The black symbolizes the people of Kenya, the red stands for the blood shed in the
fight for independence, and the green symbolizes agriculture. In the center of the flag is a red
shield with black and white markings and two crossed spears, which stands for vigilance in the
defense of freedom.
HISTORY AND ETHNIC RELATIONS
Emergence of the Nation. The Great Rift Valley is thought to be one of the places where human
beings originated, and archeologists working in the valley have found remains of what they
speculate are some of the earliest human ancestors. The first known inhabitants of present-day
Kenya were Cushitic-speaking tribes that migrated to the northwest region from Ethiopa around
2000 B.C.E. Eastern Cushites began to arrive about one thousand years later, and occupied much
of the country's current area. During the period from 500 B.C.E. to 500 C.E., other tribes arrived
from various parts of Africa. Tribal disagreements often led to war during this time.
In the 900s, Arab merchants arrived and established trading centers along the coast of East
Africa. Over the ensuing eight centuries, they succeeded in converting many Kenyans to Islam.
Some Arabs settled in the area and intermarried with local groups.
Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama landed at Mombasa in 1498, after discovering a sailing
route around the Cape of Good Hope. The Portuguese colonized much of the region, but the
Arabs managed to evict them in 1729. In the mid-1800s, European explorers stumbled upon
Mount Kilimanjaro and Mount Kenya, and began to take an interest in the natural resources of
East Africa. Christian missionaries came as well, drawn by the large numbers of prospective
converts.
Britain gradually increased its domain in the region, and in 1884–1885, Kenya was named a
British protectorate by the Congress of Berlin, which divided the African continent among
various European powers. The British constructed the Uganda Railway, which connected the
ports on Kenya's coast to landlocked Uganda. The increasing economic opportunities brought
thousands of British settlers who displaced many Africans, often forcing them to live on
reservations. The Africans resisted—the Kikuyu in particular put up a strong fight—but they
were defeated by the superior military power of the British.
During the early twentieth century, the British colonizers forced the Africans to work their farms
in virtual slavery, and kept the upper hand by making it illegal for the Kenyans to grow their own
food. In the early 1920s, a Kikuyu named Harry Thuku began to encourage rebellion among his
tribe and founded the East Africa Association. He was arrested by the British in 1922, provoking
a popular protest. The British reacted violently, killing twenty-five people in what came to be
called the Nairobi Massacre.
Desire for self-rule continued to build and in 1944 the Kenya African Union, a nationalist party,
was founded. In 1946, the Kikuyu leader Jomo Kenyatta returned after sixteen years in England
and began agitating for Kenyan independence. Back on his home soil, he was elected president
of the
Turkana men working at a gold mine in northern Kenya pass blocks of gold-bearing ore to the
surface of a shaft. The mines often lie sixty or so feet below the ground.
Kenya African Union. His rallying cry was uhuru, Swahili for freedom. While Kenyatta
advocated peaceful rebellion, other Kikuyu formed secret societies that pledged to win
independence for Kenya using whatever means necessary, including violence. In the early 1950s,
members of these groups (called Mau Mau) murdered 32 white civilians, as well as 167 police
officers and 1,819 Kikuyu who disagreed with their absolutist stance or who supported the
colonial government. In retaliation for these murders, the British killed a total of 11,503 Mau
Mau and their sympathizers. British policy also included displacing entire tribes and interning
them in barbed-wire camps.
Despite Kenyatta's public denouncement of the Mau Mau, the British tried him as a Mau Mau
leader and imprisoned him for nine years. While Kenyatta was in jail, two other leaders stepped
in to fill his place. Tom Mboya, of the Luo tribe, was the more moderate of the two, and had the
support of Western nations. Oginga Oginga, also a Luo, was more radical, and received support
from the Soviet bloc. One common goal of the two was to give blacks the right to vote. In a 1957
election, blacks won their first representation in the colonial government and eight blacks were
elected to seats in the legislature. By 1961, they constituted a majority of the body.
In 1960 at the Lancaster House Conference in London the English approved Kenyan
independence, setting the date for December 1963. Kenyatta, released from prison in 1961,
became prime minister of a newly independent Kenya on 12 December 1963 and was elected to
the office of president the following year. Although he was a Kikuyu, one of Kenyatta's primary
goals was to overcome tribalism. He appointed members of different ethnic groups to his
government, including Mboya and Oginga. His slogan became harambee, meaning "Let's all pull
together." In 1966, however, Oginga abrogated his position as vice-president to start his own
political party. Kenyatta, fearing cultural divisiveness, arrested Oginga and outlawed all political
parties except his own. On 5 July 1969, Tom Mboya was assassinated, and tensions between the
Luo and the Kikuyu increased. In elections later that year, Kenyatta won reelection and political
stability returned. Overall, the fifteen years of Kenyatta's presidency were a time of economic
and political stability. When Kenyatta died on 22 August 1978, the entire nation mourned his
death. The vice-president, Daniel Toroitich arap Moi (a Kalenjin of the Tugen subgroup) took
over. His presidency was confirmed in a general election ninety days later.
Moi initially promised to improve on Kenyatta's government by ending corruption and releasing
political prisoners. While he made some progress on these goals, Moi gradually restricted
people's liberty, outlawing all political parties except his own. In 1982, a military coup attempted
to overthrow Moi. The coup was unsuccessful, and the president responded by temporarily
closing the University of Nairobi, shutting down churches that dissented from his view, and
giving himself the power to appoint and fire judges. Moi did away with secret ballots, and
several times changed election dates spontaneously to keep people from voting. Moi's opposition
has faced even more blatant obstacles: Legislator Charles Rubia, who protested the policy of
waiting in line to vote, was arrested and later lost his seat in a rigged election; Robert Ouko,
Moi's Minister of Foreign Affairs, threatened to expose government corruption, and was later
found with a bullet in his head, his body severely burned. Pro-democracy demonstrations in the
early 1990s were put down by paramilitary troops, and leaders of the opposition were thrown in
jail. Western nations responded by demanding that Kenya hold multi-party elections if they
wanted to continue to receive foreign aid, and in December 1992 Moi won reelection, despite
widespread complaints of bribery and ballot tampering. During this time, the economy
floundered: inflation skyrocketed, the Kenyan currency was devalued by 50 percent, and
unemployment rose.
In 1995, the various opposition groups united in an attempt to wrest the presidency from Moi and
formed a political party called Safina. Opposition efforts have been unsuccessful so far, however.
In July 1997, demonstrators demanding constitutional reforms were teargassed, shot, and beaten,
resulting in eleven deaths.
Despite Moi's unpopularity and his advanced age (he was born in 1924), he maintains his grip on
the presidency. Kenya continues to suffer from tribalism and corruption, as well as high
population growth, unemployment, political instability, and the AIDS epidemic.
National Identity. Kenyans tend to identify primarily with their tribe or ethnic group, and only
secondarily with the nation as a whole. The Kikuyu, who were better represented in the
independence movement than other groups, and who continue to dominate the government, are
more likely to identify themselves as Kenyans.
Ethnic Relations. The Kikuyu are the largest tribe in the highlands, and tend to dominate the
nation's politics. Over the centuries, they consolidated their power by trading portions of their
harvests to the hunter-gatherers for land, as well as through inter-marriage. This gradual rise to
domination was peaceful and involved a mingling of different ethnic groups. While the Kikuyu
have enjoyed the most power in the post–independence government, they were also the hardest–
hit by brutal British policies during the colonial period. The Kikuyu traditionally had an
antagonistic relationship with the Maasai, and the two groups often raided each other's villages
and cattle herds. At the same time, there was a good deal of intermarriage and cultural borrowing
between the two groups. Relations among various other ethnic groups are also fraught with
tension, and this has been a major obstacle in creating a united Kenya. These conflicts are partly
a legacy of colonial rule: the British exaggerated ethnic tensions and played one group against
another to reinforce their own power. Under British rule, different ethnic groups were confined
to specific geographic areas. Ethnic tensions continue to this day, and have been the cause of
violence. In the early 1990s tribal clashes killed thousands of people and left tens of thousands
homeless. Conflicts flared again in the late 1990s between the Pokots and the Marakwets, the
Turkanas and the Samburus, and the Maasai and the Kisii.
Kenya has a fairly large Indian population, mostly those who came to East Africa in the early
twentieth century to work on the railroad. Many Indians later became merchants and
storeowners. During colonial times, they occupied a racial netherland: they were treated poorly
by the British (although not as poorly as blacks), and resented by the Africans. Even after
independence, this resentment continued and half of the Indian population left the country.
URBANISM, ARCHITECTURE, AND THE USE OF SPACE
About 70 percent of the population is rural, although this percentage has been decreasing as more
Kenyans migrate to the cities in search of work. Most of those who live in urban areas live in
either Nairobi or Mombasa. Nairobi was founded at the beginning of the twentieth century as a
stop on the East African Railway and its population is growing rapidly. Nairobi is a modern city
with a diverse, international population and a busy, fast-paced lifestyle. The city is in close
proximity to Nairobi National Park, a forty-four square mile preserve inhabited by wild animals
such as giraffes and leopards. Around the perimeter of the city, shantytowns of makeshift houses
have sprung up as the population has increased, and the shortage of adequate housing is a major
problem in urban areas.
Mombasa is the second-largest city; located on the southern coast, it is the country's main port.
Its history dates back to the first Arab settlers, and Mombasa is still home to a large Muslim
population. Fort Jesus, located in the old part of the city, dates to the Portuguese settlement of the
area in 1593, and today houses a museum. Kisumu, on Lake Victoria, is the third-largest city and
is also an important port. Two smaller cities of importance are Nakuru in the Eastern Rift Valley
and Eldoret in western Kenya.
In the cities, most people live in modern apartment buildings. In the countryside, typical housing
styles vary from tribe to tribe. Zaramo houses are made of grass and rectangular in shape; rundi
houses are beehive-like constructions of reed and bark; chagga houses are made from sticks; and
nyamwezi are round huts with thatched roofs. Some rural people have adapted their houses to
modern building materials, using bricks or cement blocks and corrugated iron or tin for roofs.
FOOD AND ECONOMY
Food in Daily Life. Corn (or maize) is the staple food of Kenyans. It is ground into flour and
prepared as a porridge called posho, which is sometimes mixed with mashed beans, potatoes, and
vegetables, to make a dish called irio. Another popular meal is a beef stew called ugali. This is
eaten from a big pot, and each diner takes a piece of ugali, which he or she uses as a spoon to
pick up beans and other vegetables. Boiled greens, called mboga, are a common side dish.
Banana porridge, called matoke, is another common dish. Meat is expensive, and is rarely eaten.
Herders depend on milk as their primary food, and fish is popular on the coast and around Lake
Victoria. Mombasa is known for its Indian foods brought by the numerous immigrants from the
subcontinent, including curries, samosas, and chapatti, a fried bread. Snacks include corn on the
cob, mandazi (fried dough), potato chips, and peanuts.
Tea mixed with milk and sugar is a common drink. Palm wine is another popular libation,
especially in Mombasa. Beer is ubiquitous, most of it produced locally by the Kenyan Breweries.
One special type of brew, made with honey, is called uki.
Food Customs at Ceremonial Occasions. For special occasions, it is customary to kill and roast
a goat. Other meats, including sheep and cow, are also served at celebrations. The special dish is
called nyama choma, which translates as "burnt meat."
Basic Economy. Kenya's economy has suffered from inefficiency and government corruption.
The tourist industry has also been harmed by political violence in the late 1990s. Seventy-five to
80 percent of the workforce is in agriculture. Most of these
A young Samburu woman wearing traditional ornamentation.
workers are subsistence farmers, whose main crops are corn, millet, sweet potatoes, and such
fruits as bananas, oranges, and mangoes. The main cash crops are tea and coffee, which are
grown on large plantations. The international market for these products tends to fluctuate widely
from year to year, contributing to Kenya's economic instability.
Many Kenyans work in what is called the jua kali sector, doing day labor in such fields as
mechanics, small crafts, and construction. Others are employed in industry, services, and
government, but the country has an extremely high unemployment rate, estimated at 50 percent.
Land Tenure and Property. During colonial rule, Kenyan farmers who worked the British
plantations were forced to cultivate the least productive lands for their own subsistence. After
independence, many of the large colonial land holdings were divided among Kenyans into small
farms known as shambas. The government continues to control a large part of the economy,
although in the late 1990s it began selling off many state farms to private owners and
corporations.
Commercial Activities. The main goods produced for sale are agricultural products such as corn,
sweet potatoes, bananas, and citrus fruit. These are sold in small local markets, as well as in
larger markets in the cities, alongside other commercial goods and handicrafts. Bargaining is an
expected, and at times lengthy, process in financial interactions.
Major Industries. The main industries are the small-scale production of consumer goods, such as
plastic, furniture, and textiles; food processing; oil refining; and cement. Tourism is also
important to Kenya's economy, due mainly to game reserves and resorts along the coast, but the
industry has been hurt by recent political instability.
Trade. The primary imports are machinery and transportation equipment, petroleum products,
iron, and steel. These come from the United Kingdom, the United Arab Emirates, the United
States, Japan, and Germany. Kenya exports tea, coffee, horticultural products, and petroleum
products to Uganda, the United Kingdom, Tanzania, Egypt, and Germany.
Division of Labor. Kikuyu are the best represented ethnic group in jobs of the highest status,
followed by the Luo. Members of these two groups hold most of the highest positions in
government, business, and education. Many Luo are fishermen and boat-builders; those who
have moved to the cities often take up work as mechanics and craftsmen, and dominate Kenyan
trade unions. A number of Maasai and Samburu have taken jobs as park rangers and safari
guides. Along the coast, most merchants and storekeepers are of Indian or Arab descent. In
farming communities, work is divided among people of all different ages; children begin helping
at a very young age, and the elderly continue to work as long as they are physically able.
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
Classes and Castes. There is a great deal of poverty in Kenya. Most of the wealthiest people are
Kikuyu, followed by the Luo. Kenyans of higher economic and social class tend to have
assimilated more Western culture than those of the lower classes.
Symbols of Social Stratification. Among herders such as the Masai, wealth is measured in the
number of cattle one owns. Having many children is also a sign of wealth. In urban areas, most
people dress in Western-style clothing. While western clothing does not necessarily indicate high
status, expensive brand-name clothing does. Many women wear a colorful kanga, a large piece
of cloth that can be wrapped around the body as a skirt or shawl and head scarves are also
common. Some ethnic groups, such as the Kikuyu and the Luo, have adopted Western culture
more readily than others, who prefer to retain their distinctive styles of dress and ornamentation.
Women of the northern nomadic tribes, for example, wear gorfa, a sheepskin or goatskin dyed
red or black and wrapped around the body, held in place with a leather cord and a rope belt.
Among some ethnic groups, such as the Rendille, a woman's hairstyle indicates her marital status
and whether or not she has children. A man's stage of life is revealed by specific headdresses or
jewelry. The Pokot and Maasai wear rows of beaded necklaces, as do the Turkana women, who
wear so many strands that it elongates their necks. The above practices are indicators of marital
and social standings within Kenyan society.
POLITICAL LIFE
Government. Kenya is divided into seven provinces and one area. The president is both chief of
state and head of the government. He is chosen from among the members of the National
Assembly, and is elected by popular vote for a five-year term. The president appoints both a
vice-president and a cabinet. The legislature is the unicameral National Assembly, or Bunge. It
consists of 222 members, twelve appointed by the president and the rest elected by popular vote.
Leadership and Political Officials. According to Kenya's constitution, multiple parties are
allowed, but in fact it is President Moi's Kenya African National Union (KANU) that controls
the government. The main opposition groups (which have little clout) are the Forum for the
Restoration of Democracy-Kenya (FORD–Kenya), the National Development Party, the Social
Democratic Party, and the Democratic Party.
Social Problems and Control. Crime (mostly petty crime) and drug use are rampant in the cities.
Kenya has a common law system similar to that of Britain. There are also systems of tribal law
and Islamic law, used to settle personal disputes within an ethnic group or between two Muslims.
Citizens are not granted free legal aid except in capital cases, and as a result many poor Kenyans
are jailed simply for lack of a legal defense. Kenya has a spotty record in the area of human
rights, and does not allow independent monitoring of its prison system.
Nairobi, Kenya, is a thriving urban center.
Military Activity. Kenya's military includes an army, navy, air force, and the paramilitary
General Service Unit of the Police, which has been used to put down civilian rebellions and
protests. The country's military expenditures total 2 percent of the gross domestic product
(GDP). Serving in the military is voluntary.
SOCIAL WELFARE AND CHANGE PROGRAMS
Most social welfare is provided by the family rather than the government. There are governmentrun hospitals and health clinics, as well as adult literacy programs.
NONGOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS AND OTHER
ASSOCIATIONS
There are a number of international organizations that work in Kenya to provide humanitarian
aid and to help with the state of the economy and health care. These include the World Health
Organization, the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO),
the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), and others. There are also a
number of human rights organizations, including the Kenya Antirape Organization, the Legal
Advice Center, and the Catholic Justice and Peace Commission. Kenya is a member of the
United Nations, the Commonwealth of Nations, and the Organization of African Unity.
GENDER ROLES AND STATUSES
Division of Labor by Gender. Among herders, men are responsible for the care of the animals.
In agricultural communities, both men and women work in the fields but it is estimated that
women do up to 80 percent of the work in rural areas: in addition to work in the fields, they take
care of the children, cook, keep a vegetable garden, and fetch water and are also responsible for
taking food to market to sell. It is common for men to leave their rural communities and move to
the city in search of paying jobs. While this sometimes brings more income to the family, it also
increases the women's workload. In urban areas women are more likely to take jobs outside the
home; in fact, 40 percent of the urban work force is female. For the most part, women are still
confined to lower-paying and lower status jobs such as food service or secretarial work, but the
city of Kisumu has elected a woman mayor, and there are several women in Parliament.
The Relative Status of Men and Women. For the most part, women are treated as second-class
citizens in Kenya. Despite the disproportionate amount of work that women do, men usually
control the money and property in a family. Wife beating is common, and women have little
legal recourse. Another women's issue is clitoridectomy, or female genital mutilation, which
leaves many women in continual pain and vulnerable to infection. As women gain access to
education, their status in society is increasing. Women's groups such as the National Women's
Council of Kenya have been instrumental in pushing for just laws and in teaching women skills
that allow them to earn a living.
MARRIAGE, FAMILY, AND KINSHIP
Marriage. Polygamy is traditional, and in the past it was not uncommon for men to have five or
six wives. The practice is becoming less typical today as it has been opposed by Christian
missionaries, and is increasingly impractical as few men can afford to support multiple partners.
When a man chooses a potential wife, he negotiates a bride price of money or cattle with the
woman's father. The price is generally higher for a first wife than for subsequent ones. The
wedding ceremony and feast are celebrated in the husband's home.
Domestic Unit. In the traditional living arrangement, a man builds a separate hut for each of his
wives, where she will live with her children, and a hut for himself. In a family with one wife, the
parents often live together with girls and younger boys, while the older boys have smaller houses
close by. It is common for several generations to live together under the same roof. According to
tradition, it is the responsibility of the youngest son to care for his aging parents. Among the
Maasai, houses are divided into four sections: one section for the women, one section for the
children, one section for the husband, and one section for cooking and eating.
Inheritance. According to the tradition, inheritance passes from father to son. This is still the
case today, and there are legal as well as cultural obstacles to women inheriting property.
Kin Groups. Extended families are considered a single unit; children are often equally close to
cousins and siblings, and aunts and uncles are thought of as fathers and mothers. These large
family groups often live together in small settlements. Among the Maasai, for example, ten or
twelve huts are built in a circle surrounded by a thornbush fence. This is known as a kraal.
SOCIALIZATION
Infant Care. Mothers usually tie their babies to their backs with a cloth sling. Girls begin caring
for younger siblings at a very early age, and it is not uncommon to see a five- or six-year-old girl
caring for a baby.
Child Rearing and Education. Child rearing is communal: responsibility for the children is
shared among aunts, uncles, grandparents, and other members of the community. Boys and girls
have fairly separate upbringings. Each is taught the duties and obligations specific to their sex:
girls learn early how to carry water, cook, and care for children, while boys are schooled in the
ways of herding or working in the fields. Children are also grouped into "age sets" with peers
born in the same year. Members of a given age set form a special bond, and undergo initiation
rituals as a group.
Primary school, which children attend from the age of seven to the age of fourteen, is free.
Secondary school for students ages fourteen to eighteen is prohibitively expensive for most of
the population. Only half of all children complete the first seven years of schooling, and only
one-seventh of these
Farms in the Great Rift Valley of Kenya. In the 1990s, the government began selling state farms
to private enterprises.
continue on to high school. After each of the two levels, there is a series of national exams which
students must pass in order to continue in their studies.
Kenya's education system has been plagued with widespread accusations of cheating, and there
is a shortage of qualified teachers to educate the burgeoning population of school-age children.
In addition to government-run schools, churches and civic groups have established self-help or
harambee schools, with the help of volunteers from the United States and Europe. These schools
now outnumber government-run secondary schools.
Higher Education. There are eight universities in Kenya. The largest of these is the University
of Nairobi, the Kenyatta University College is also located in the capital. In addition to
universities, Kenya has several technical institutes which train students in agriculture, teaching,
and other professions. Those who can afford it often send their children abroad for postsecondary education.
ETIQUETTE
Kenyans are generally friendly and hospitable. Greetings are an important social interaction, and
often include inquiries about health and family members. Visitors to a home are usually offered
food or tea, and it is considered impolite to decline. Elderly people are treated with a great deal
of respect and deference.
RELIGION
Religious Beliefs. The population is 38 percent Protestant and 28 percent Roman Catholic.
Twenty-six percent are animist, 7 percent are Muslim, and 1 percent follow other religions.
Many people incorporate traditional beliefs into their practice of Christianity, causing some
tension between Kenyans and Christian churches, particularly on the issue of polygamy.
Religious practices of different ethnic groups vary, but one common element is the belief in a
spirit world inhabited by the souls of ancestors. The Kikuyu and several other groups worship the
god Ngai, who is said to live on top of Mount Kenya.
Religious Practitioners. In traditional religions, diviners are believed to have the power to
communicate with the spirit world, and they use their powers to cure people of diseases or evil
spirits. Diviners are also called upon to help bring rain during times of drought. Sorcerers and
witches are also believed to have supernatural powers, but unlike the diviners they use these
powers to cause harm. It is the job of the diviners to counter their evil workings.
Rituals and Holy Places. Among the Masai, the beginning of the rainy season is observed with a
celebration which lasts for several days and includes singing, dancing, eating, and praying for the
health of their animals. For the ritual dances, the performers die their hair red, paint black stripes
on their bodies, and don ostrich-feather headdresses. The Kikuyu mark the start of the planting
season with their own festivities. Their ceremonial dances are often performed by warriors
wearing leopard or zebra skin robes and carrying spears and shields. The dancers dye their
bodies blue, and paint them in white patterns.
Initiation ceremonies are important rites of passage, and they vary from tribe to tribe. Boys and
girls undergo separate rituals, after which they are considered of marriageable age. Kikuyu boys,
for example, are initiated at the age of eighteen. Their ears are pierced, their heads shaved, and
their faces marked with white earth. Pokot girls are initiated at twelve years old, in a ceremony
that involves singing, dancing, and decorating their bodies with ocher, red clay, and animal fat.
Weddings are important occasions throughout the country, and are celebrated with up to eight
days of music, dance, and special foods.
Death and the Afterlife. At death, Kenyans believe that one enters the spirit world, which has
great influence in the world of the living. Many Kenyans believe in reincarnation, and children
are thought to be the embodiment of the souls of a family's ancestors.
MEDICINE AND HEALTH CARE
The health care system in Kenya is understaffed and poorly supplied. The government runs
clinics throughout the country that focus primarily on preventive medicine. These clinics have
had some success in reducing the rate of sleeping sickness and malaria through the use of
vaccines, but the country is still plagued with high rates of gastroenteritis, dysentery, diarrhea,
sexually transmitted diseases, and trachoma. Access to modern health care is rare, particularly in
rural areas, and many people still depend on traditional cures including herbal medicines and
healing rituals.
Kenya has one of the world's highest birth rates, and birth control programs have been largely
ineffective. The life expectancy, while higher than in some other African nations, is still only
fifty-four years. AIDS has been devastating to the country, and at least five hundred Kenyans die
of the disease each day. President Moi has declared the AIDS epidemic a national disaster, but
has nonetheless refused to encourage condom use.
SECULAR CELEBRATIONS
New Year's Day is celebrated on 1 January, and Labor Day, 1 May. Other holidays include
Madaraka Day anniversary of self-rule, 1 June; Moi Day commemorating the president's
installation in office, on 10 October; Independence Day also called Jamhuri Day, on 12
December; Kenyatta Day, celebrating Jomo Kenyatta as the national hero, on 20 October. Also
called Harambee Day, this festival includes a large parade in the capital and celebrations
throughout the country.
THE ARTS AND HUMANITIES
Support for the Arts. The National Gallery in Nairobi has a special gallery and studio space set
aside for emerging artists. The University of Nairobi also supports a national traveling theater
company.
Literature. Kenya has a strong oral tradition. Many folktales concern animals or the intervention
of the spirits in everyday life; others are war stories detailing soldiers' bravery. The stories are
passed from generation to generation, often in the form of songs. Contemporary Kenyan
literature draws extensively from this oral heritage, as well as from Western literary tradition.
Ngugi wa Thiong'o, a Kikuyu, is Kenya's most prominent writer. His first novels, including
Weep Not, Child (1964) and Petals of Blood (1977) were written in English. Though they were
strong messages of social protest, it was not until he began to write exclusively in Swahili and
Kikuyu that Ngugi became the victim of censorship. He was jailed for one year, and later exiled
to England. Other contemporary Kenyan writers, such as Sam Kahiga, Meja Mwangi and
Marjorie Oludhe Macgoye, are less explicitly political in their work.
Graphic Arts. Kenya is known for its sculpture and wood-carving, which often has religious
significance. Figures of ancestors are believed to appease the inhabitants of the spirit world, as
are the elaborately carved amulets that Kenyans wear around their necks. In addition to wood,
sculptors also work in ivory and gold. Contemporary sculptors often blend traditional styles with
more modern ones.
Only half of Kenyan children complete the first seven years of schooling.
Artists also create the colorful masks and headdresses that are worn during traditional dances,
often fashioned to represent birds or other animals. Jewelry is another Kenyan art form, and
includes elaborate silver and gold bracelets and various forms of colorful beadwork.
In some tribes, including the Kikuyu and the Luhya, women make pottery and elaborately
decorated baskets.
Performance Arts. Dancing is an important part of Kenyan culture. Men and women usually
dance separately. Men perform line dances, some of which involve competing to see who can
jump the highest. Dance is often an element of religious ceremonies, such as marriage, child
naming, and initiation. Costume is an important element of many traditional dances, as are props:
dancers often don masks and carry shields, swords, and other objects.
The music of Kenya is polyrhythmic, incorporating several different beats simultaneously. The
primary instruments are drums but lutes, woodwinds, and thumb pianos are also used. Singing
often follows a call-and-response pattern, and singers chant rhythms that diverge from those
played on the instruments. Kikuyu music is relatively simple; the main instrument is the gicandi,
a rattle made from a gourd. Other groups, such as the Luhya, have more complex music and
dance traditions, incorporating a variety of instruments.
In the cities, benga, a fusion of Western and Kenyan music, is popular. Benga was originated by
the Luo in the 1950s, and incorporates two traditional instruments, the nyatiti, a small stringed
instrument, and the orutu, a one-string fiddle, as well as the electric guitar. Taarab music, which
is popular along the coast, shows both Arabic and Indian influence. It is sung by women, with
drums, acoustic guitar, a small organ, and sometimes a string section accompanying the singers.
THE STATE OF THE PHYSICAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
Kenya has few facilities for the study of physical sciences. The National Museum in Nairobi has
collections of historical and cultural artifacts and the museum at Fort Jesus in Mombasa is
dedicated to archeology and history.
Much of what scientific activity there is in Kenya revolves around conservation. There are a
number of National Parks where the animals are protected, and scientists come from around the
world to study the nation's rich and diverse wildlife.