Lectures
Lecture 9/18/06

























Phillip (359-336 BC) was Alexander (336-323 BC)’s father
Macedonia
12 years of travels and conquests
Secular (Greatest leader?)
Written sources by Romans in Latin and Greek 500 years after A.G.
Images on: stone, coins, paintings
Concerned with promoting is own likeness (literally and figuratively)
Romance as novel, new literary form, narrative which emerged around time of his
death
Dealing with monarchy v. mortality—Coming to terms
Power—obtain, use, transmit—Ultimate Prize
Memory—A.G.’s aim, “master of propaganda”
A.G.’s self-image—Belief of possession of divine blood
The Hero—Human beings elevated to super-human status, cultism in Greece
Dieties—“The Other”—Attempt to become divine—“What are the limits of
being?”—Balance between excellence and imitation of the Gods
How Power is Transmitted
o Dynasty—children (eldest son preferred), generational succession
o Assassination, usurpation
o Appointment—personal favor
o Government with election by all—consensus
Alexander trained from infancy
o Phillip building (through military and diplomacy) greatest state known to
Hellenics
o Phillip chose A.G.’s peers as companions (became his generals—Some of
these took over as he didn’t leave succession plan—need for legitimacy
Great physical strength—short, ruddy, blonde
Personal Courage—Models: Father, Achilles (believed ancestor)
Decisiveness
Intuition—Anticipating enemy
Charismatic personality and relations with men—“hands on”
God-given and good fortune
As he took over kingships, took on personalities (customs, court ceremonials)—
Caused rift with his men—Separation led to isolation, paranoia, megalomania
Ultimate failure because he didn’t make provision for succession—no children—
mother, companion, horse—loneliness, unfulfilled need for accountability partner,
difficulty of others to communicate with power
Statuettes, busts (deep eyes, long nose, wavy ringlets, shaven, youth, wrinkled
brow), sarcophagi, mosaics, coins

Merger of image with animals (descendent of Pericles (lion), elephant (India),
after death ram horns (comme Zeus)) and deities (Middle ages shown as King
John, Islamics show as sultan)—Civilizations fit his image to their culture
Lecture 9/22/06 (two sets, enjoy!)
-
-
-




4th millennium B.C. (4000-3000 B.C.) = great developments: beginnings of
cities/urban life, used agriculture/land/irrigation as efficiently as possible
Mesopotamia (present-day Syria, Iraq, etc.): early example of boundaries,
ownership, property rights, accounting system, road signs; first system of writing;
great river civilization, produced great epics
3200-3000 B.C.: developments of Mesopotamia (Near East) spread to Egypt
Egypt:
o Nile Valley unified 3200-3000 B.C. under the first pharaoh
o Abundance of gold, soft limestone
2800 B.C.: Beginning of freestanding stone architecture, pyramids; portraiture
developed, sculptures depicted individuals precisely as they were
Enormous temples, columns, and statues = “colossal”  later influenced Greeks
Deities: depicted with horns (the more horns, the more important), close
relationship with rulers
850-612 B.C.: Neo-Assyrians: formed empire in the Near East, dominated the
world
Concept of kingship as it evolves (Western Asia)
People congregate in river basins
4th millennium B.C. (4000-3000 BC), era of Crucial development
o Beginnings of urban life
 Partially caused by need to best use agricultural resources through
irrigation
 Not needed in Egypt because Nile’s annual flood—silt
 Mesopotamian areas (approx. 3500)—Accounting system,
eventually writing both economic and cultural events on tablets
(cuneiform)
 Egypt (approx. 3200 or 3000) develop hieroglyphics
 Idea of Divine Kingship
Egypt
o Pyramids and statues at Giza made by thousands working for divine
pharaoh (approx. 2600)
o Nile splitting to deltas
o Alexander founded Alexandria in Delta
o City-States along Nile which were unified approx. 3200 or 3000 with
Upper (South) and Lower (North) Egypt by strong king who may have
been first pharaoh

o Pharaoh was divine in life and at death the soul went with the sun god
assuming that there was provision for the body—this need for provision
led to mummification
o Land of predictability—Inundation—Regularity reflected in concept of the
cosmos
o Not isolated—Impulses of high civilization from Mesopotamia
o Gold, limestone, volcanic stones
o Earliest object of art in Egypt—carved in relief—King wearing helmet,
bull, profile of head and legs down, frontal chest, hawk symbolizing deity
Horace
o Writing became prerogative of elite; knowing how to read and write was a
key to power
o Approx. 2800 beginning of freestanding stone architecture—Imhotah
(architect)—step pyramids
o Pyramids not built by slaves, but by free volunteers who may have
received stipend
o Within pyramids—development of portraiture
o Sculpture and portraiture as he or she was—Prince Akaf shows actual
physiognomy
 Used for purposes of after life and for ruler’s recognition
o Temples and statues
o Memphis—Old capitol—Colossal of Ramasess
o God: Sacred bull—Apis Bull, every time died was mummified and new
one picked
Mesopotamia
o Land of two rivers
o Earliest writing
o Epic of Gilgamesh—Great legend
o Inundations, storms
o Another kind of kingship
o Babylon
o Sumerians lived in South
 Semitic Akkadians
o Neo-Assyrians (North)
o Hittites in Central—Fought Egyptians until Kadesh peace treaty
o Stele stone carved—King shown in greater scale with horned helmet (sign
of deity)
o Gudea—Ruler who commissioned many statues of self—Ruler as a
representative of Gods, not a God himself
o Stele—Upright stone—Hammurabi (with sun god) used for Law Code
o Ruler paying homage to Gods also shown on cylinder seal
o God protecting king (like son)
o Ziggurat—Mountain built for closeness with Gods—Babylon
o Gate of Ishtar
o Assyrian kings shown hunting lions (forces of dark)
o Ruling with sanction rather than divine self
Terms for Lectures on 9/18 and 9/20
Philip (r. 359-336 BC) – Father of Alexander and King of Macedonia. He built the
Macedonian Kingdom into a powerful military state and began preparations for an
invasion of Asia. He had several wives – Olympias was the one who bore Alexander.
He played an instrumental role in Alexander’s upbringing, and even handpicked his son’s
playmates (the companions). Alexander accordingly viewed him as a role model, though
he occasionally resented Philip for taking glory in battle and leaving him nothing to do.
Due to his aggressive tactics and different dialect of speaking, other Greeks called him
“Philip the Barbarian.”
Alexander (r. 336-323 BC) – The central character of this entire freaking course.
Kingship – Different conceptions of kingship existed throughout the ancient world.
Early on, kings became necessary as civilization increasingly settled in urban areas and
consolidated. In Egypt, kings were worshipped as gods, whereas in Babylon kings were
seen as intermediaries between mortals and gods.
Monarchy – Form of government that requires a king (and therefore kingship).
Alexander struggled with the conflict between his sense of divine monarchy and his
obvious human mortality.
Propaganda – Alexander mastered the art of propaganda. Examples of this include his
regulation of images of him in art or writing, his dramatic speeches before his troops, and
his creation of a cult surrounding his divine image.
Power – Alexander’s ultimate goal, the force that drives him to do everything he does.
Hero – One who is elevated to superhuman status, to a realm between man and the gods.
In ancient Greece, hero cults grew up around the various heroes, Alexander included.
His cult proclaimed not only his heroic status, but also his divinity.
Heroization – The process by which men were elevated to hero status.
Divinity – As mentioned, Alexander had a cult that proclaimed his divinity, and he may
have thought himself divine as well.
Dynasty – One way of transferring power in a monarchy. Alexander received power
from this manner, but failed to pass it on because he never named a successor.
Romance – A new type of literature that emerged shortly after Alexander’s death. It
tends to idealize its subjects.
Image – Alexander was very conscious about his image. Each culture adapted its image
of Alexander to fit its conception of him.
Literary source – To get information on Alexander’s life, we depend on several sources
written in Latin, many of which were written 500 years after Alexander died.
Portrait – These became more realistic, so that they resembled their subject instead of a
generic ideal.
Assassination – Alexander inherited the throne after his father was assassinated.
Alexander may have plotted the assassination, but there is no hard proof.
Successor – Alexander did not name a successor, thereby leading to the disintegration of
his empire after his death.
Usurpation – Upon Philip’s death, Alexander had to act quickly to ensure that nobody
would usurp his throne. In addition to violently quashing several rebellions, he purged a
number of nobles to ensure that they could not become king in place of him.
Regent – An administrator who looks over a kingdom while the king is away fighting.
While Alexander was taking over the world, Antipater governed Macedonia.
Ancestor – Alexander believed that his ancestors included Herakles and Achilles, two
great ancient heroes. He also believed that he was related to the gods and derived great
confidence and power from his ancestry.
Role model – Alexander looked at Achilles and Philip as his role models.
Legitimacy – Alexander needed to be seen as the legitimate ruler of every nation he took
over. As an example, he declared himself Pharaoh of Egypt and participated in a divine
ritual declaring him equal to an Egyptian god, thereby giving him additional legitimacy in
the eyes of his new subjects.
Narrative – Like romance, a new type of literature that emerged after Alexander’s death
and included many writings on him.
Legend – Alexander is the subject of many legends, some of which may be partly based
on truth.
Myth – After Alexander’s death, myths about his life sprung up, often confusing factual
historical accounts.
Memory – Alexander was obsessed with his memory. This obsession explains his
preoccupation with his image, his divine self-conception, and his
9/22 Lecture
-
-
-
4th millennium B.C. (4000-3000 B.C.) = great developments: beginnings of
cities/urban life, used agriculture/land/irrigation as efficiently as possible
Mesopotamia (present-day Syria, Iraq, etc.): early example of boundaries,
ownership, property rights, accounting system, road signs; first system of writing;
great river civilization, produced great epics
3200-3000 B.C.: developments of Mesopotamia (Near East) spread to Egypt
Egypt:
o Nile Valley unified 3200-3000 B.C. under the first pharaoh
o Abundance of gold, soft limestone
2800 B.C.: Beginning of freestanding stone architecture, pyramids; portraiture
developed, sculptures depicted individuals precisely as they were
Enormous temples, columns, and statues = “colossal”  later influenced Greeks
Deities: depicted with horns (the more horns, the more important), close
relationship with rulers
850-612 B.C.: Neo-Assyrians: formed empire in the Near East, dominated the
world
9/22 Vocabulary:
1) Egypt: affected by the developments in Mesopotamia beginning in 3200 B.C.
(300 years later), used hieroglyphics as system of writing, created pyramids and
other formations to worship gods, bury royalty, etc., land abundant in gold and
soft limestone; art and structures later influenced the Greeks
2) Nile: provided irrigation to the Nile River Valley (unified in 3200-3000 B.C.)
3) Giza: 3 large pyramids built by free Egyptian citizens (not slaves), paid in
stipends (food, etc.); pyramids originally covered in limestone
4) Pyramid: form of worship to gods, created as early as 2800 B.C. (Giza=most
famous)
5) Pharaoh: diving Egyptian ruler, soul continues with the Sun God after death
6) Inundation: annual occurrence; little rain each year until this, in which the Nile
River flooded and watered the surrounding land and produced crops
7) Amun: “The Hidden One,” Egyptian word (modified) for important deity, God of
Air; male aspect usually depicted as a frog or frog head, female aspect depicted as
a snake, invisibility depicted by the color blue (since air/wind are invisible); later
depicted in human form on a throne with his wife/female aspect behind him,
wearing a headpiece containing two straight parallel plumes (symbolic of the tail
feathers of a bird to indicate his previous status as the wind god);
8) Ka: one of the seven parts of the soul in Egyptian mythology (one of the three
immortal aspects); represents corporal presence/life force (similar to the soul) in
order to highlight the difference between a living and a dead person; the Ka leaves
the body at death; Egyptians believed this was sustained through food and drink;
represented as a second image of the individual (a double image)
9) Apis Bull: sacred bull, deity in Egypt; mummified at death before new Apis Bull
named
10) Delta: in northern Egypt, spreads to Mediterranean; Alexander founds his first
city at the Western part of this delta
11) Memphis: Egyptian capital before Cairo, contained colossal statues
12) Mesopotamia: fertile land (“Fertile Crescent”) located between the Tigris and
Euphrates Rivers; in present-day Turkey
13) Sumerian: earliest inhabitants of Mesopotamia, followed by the Acadians
14) Cuneiform writing: literally means “wedge-shaped”; earliest form of writing
created by the Sumerians as early as 3500 B.C., a system of pictographs used as a
model for Egyptians’ hieroglyphics just 300 years later; written on clay tablets
using a stylus
15) Naram-Sin: (2255 B.C. – 2219 B.C.) first Mesopotamian King to claim divinity;
third ruler of the Akkadian Empire, under which the empire reached its zenith
16) Gudea: ruler of Southern Mesopotamia from 2144 B.C. – 2124 B.C.; inscriptions
emphasize the building of irrigation channels and temples and the creation of
precious gifts to the gods; many reforms during kingship, including the
cancellation of debts and the allowance of women to own family lands
17) Ziggurat: mound built in the Near East (Mesopotamia) as a form of worship and
way to get closer to the gods (example: Mount Sinai); similar to pyramid, but
without same geometric shape
18) Gilgamesh: fifth king of the Sumerians ~ 2650 B.C.; divine mother? (Ninsun);
credited with being a demigod of superhuman strength who constructed a great
wall around the city in order to protect his people from external threats
19) Hammurabi: first king of the Babylonian Empire from 1792-1750 B.C.; most
well-known for his Code of Laws, written on a stele and placed in a public place
in Babylon for all to see
20) Akkadian: Semitic language spoken in ancient Mesopotamia by the Assyrians and
Babylonians based on cuneiform writing
a. Akkad: city in northern Mesopotamia on the bank of the Euphrates River,
Akkadians recognized as gifted warriors
21) Semitic: describes the extended cultures, ethnicities, history and languages of
Middle Eastern groups; derived from Biblical usage; earliest Semitic peoples are
the Akkadians (2500 B.C.)
22) Cylinder Seal: cylinder engraved with a “picture story,” usually depicting deities;
roll cylinder on a piece of wet clay/ground to produce ongoing seal on the ground
throughout the city
23) Seal impression: Common seal that represents themes of a particular society; two
types = cylinder seal and stamp seal
24) Stele: stone or wooden slab erected for funerary or commemorative purposes,
usually decorated, inscribed and carved in relief; also used as territory markers
[ example: Stele of Hammurabi ]
25) Law Code: body of law written and enforced by a state used to broadcast an idea
of public morality and disclose the retribution that the society will enforce on
those who offend that morality [ earliest Code of Laws = Hammurabi’s Code of
Laws ]
26) Neo-Assyrians: civilization located in the upper region of the Tigris River; the
Neo-Assyrian kingdom is one of the three periods of time known as the most
powerful and successful from 911-612 B.C. (other two are “Old” and “Middle”
kingdoms/periods)
27) Hittites: established 2nd empire of Mesopotamia in Anatolia in the 18th century
B.C.; was most powerful and large in the 14th century B.C. before disintegrating
into several independent city-states in 1180 B.C.; Hitties were famous for their
skill in building chariots and were also pioneers of the Iron Age, manufacturing
iron artifacts as early as the 14th century B.C.
28) Babylon: near present-day Baghdad, Iraq; became a unified empire under
Hammurabi in the 18th century B.C.; known today as the largest city from 1770
B.C. – 1670 B.C. and 612-320 B.C.; during Alexander’s time, Babylon was ruled
by Darius III until Alexander conquered him and the lands in 331 B.C.
29) Divine Kingship:
30) Divine Sanction:
Apothesosis: “Becoming a God,” to deify; state leaders and a few revered artists
(mortals) might be rais
3. 9/25 and 9/27 Chloe Frank
9/25-9/27 (Lectures and Terms)
The Hellenes lived across the 4th, 5th and 6th centuries, occupying palaces at Athens,
Sparta, Thebes and Troy (located in vicinity of Dardanelles)
They worshipped at Mt. Olympus (remote, divine paradise) to Olympian Deities—Zeus
being the most powerful, patriarchal figurehead and Hera being his wife; expected to
give sacrifices!
Trojan War (as told by Iliad): after Paris stole Helen from Sparta, a war broke out
between the Achaeans and Trojans, Achilles being very active in fight (killed Hector and
wounded by arrow in heel from Paris and dies); Athenians believed this war to have
actually taken place (12th or 13th century BC) and claim ancestry; ends in sack of Troy.
Priam (King of Troy) was slain by Achilles; father of Hector and Paris (who abducted
Helen). War ended in sacking of Troy by means of the Trojan Horse (sneaking into city
under pretense of giving a gift); when Achilles returns Hector’s body to Priam, it shows
his emotional/understanding side.
Agamemnon (King of Achaeans)
Odysseus: The Odyssey chronicles his 10 year journey home after Trojan War.
Archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann excavated what he thought to be Troy.
Alexander identifies with Achilles (descent through mother); also related to Herakles
(father’s side)
Mycenae: ancient Greek city that flourished in the Bronze Age (1600-1200 BC), was the
capital of King Agamemnon and was most prosperous from 1400-1200 BC.
(Image: golden mask of Agamemnon, 1600 BC, found in graves and serves as testament
to masonry/skill of artisans)
At Mycenae there exists a citadel with the well-known Lion’s Gate, which was the
symbol of the ruling class/kinds of Mycenae. Part of the great walls of fortification built
around city.
Treasury of Atreus (“beehive/tholos tomb”): lintels of 30 tons, corbel vault technique
(jutting out pieces supporting pieces below it—system of support)
Remains found inside tholos tomb were cremated (burned to ashes); remains were
pushed to the side to accommodate for more recent deaths in royal family. Inhumation:
to bury.
Around 1200 BC all palaces were destroyed—cause unclear!
Remains of palace at Lefkandi: 1,000 BC, was the burial crypt of a king cremated and
put into bronze jug and female skeleton found with jewelry.
Kingship dies down and we get democracy in city-states for a while.
Theseus: legendary king of Athens that killed the Minotaur at palace (probably
Knossos) in Crete.
Synoikismos: literally means “dwelling together” and refers to formation of Greek cities
or polis.
Tyranny/tyrant: rule by one who has absolute power but with no legal right
PISISTRATUS: tyrant of Athens (600-527 BC), reduced aristocratic power in rural
Athens and led to flourishing culture/financial growth
Oligarchy: small group of people having control
Democracy: system of government in which a majority has rule
Basileus is a word that signifies “sovereign”—appropriated by Bronze Age Mycenaeans
to mean “chieftain” or someone who is high up in ruling class.
Archon Basileus/King Archon: last remant of this ruling class, appropriated by
democracy.
Sparta/Spartan Kings: powerful city-state in Greece, rival of Athens, believed
descendents of Herakles
Kingship came with the Peloponnesian War: 431–404 BC between Athens and Sparta,
started largely by Spartan in opposition to the Delian League. Ended in defeat of Athens
and brief transfer of power to Sparta. Delian League: alliance of city-states, dominated
by Athens, that joined in 478–447 BC against Persians. League disbanded after
Peloponnesian War but united again under Athens' leadership against Spartan aggression
in 377–338 BC.
PERSIAN EMPIRE: 39 provinces, each ruled by a satrap—lasted for 200 years and
formed the basis for the rest of the kingships. (Iranian civilization: one of most ancient.)
Medes was a member of the Iranian people who inhabited ancient Media, establishing an
extensive empire during the 7th century BC, which was conquered by Cyrus (“the
Great”) of Persia in 550 BC.
CYRUS: (before Darius I) King of Persia 559–530 BC; founder of Achaemenid
dynasty/empire; defeated the Median empire and conquered Asia Minor, Babylonia,
Syria, Palestine, and most of the Iranian plateau.
The Persian “Royal Road” was an ancient highway built by the Persian king Darius I of
Achaemenid Empire in the 5th Century BC. Darius built the road to facilitate rapid
communication throughout his very large empire from Susa (later capital of empire) to
Sardis (Sardis was conquered by Cyrus the Great and formed the end station for the
Persian Royal Road which began in Persepolis, literally meaning “city of the Persians”,
capital of Persia.)
The Apadana is the name of the great audience hall at Persepolis. It belongs to the oldest
building phase of the city, built during the first half of the 5th century BC as part of the
original design by Darius the Great, its construction completed by Xerxes I.
(Pasargadae was the Persian capital until Darius began assembling another in
Persepolis.)
490 BC: Darius I launched ships to take over city-states…to suppress Ionian revolt.
Battle of Marathon: Greeks win despite numbers! Tremendous burial mound
commemorates this battle. Herodotus (Greek Historian, “Father of History”) wrote about
this battle.
480 BC: Leonidas: one of the kings of Sparta (they had 2) who led 300 men against
Persians (Battle of Thermopylae); many thought he wanted them to loose because he was
so ill-prepared; Persians led by Xerxes (son of Darius I) defeated them, though they
inflicted much harm on Persians. (Important in that this bought the Athenians time.)
Themistocles: Athenian statesman who built up Athenian fleet and defeated Persians at
Battle of Salamis in 480 BC. They drew Persian fleet between land and Salamis and
destroyed them.
Persian Wars (brief overview): The wars began in 490 BC when Darius I sent an
expedition to punish the Greeks for having supported the Ionian cities in their
unsuccessful revolt against Persian rule; the Persians were defeated by a small force of
Athenians at Marathon. Ten years later, Darius's son Xerxes I attempted an invasion. He
devastated Attica, but Persian forces were defeated on land at Plataea and in a sea battle
at Salamis (480 BC), and retreated. Darius sends ambassadors seeking a truce (“earth and
water”) and peace is made. Greeks form LEAGUE.
In wake of Persian Wars:
Acropolis: citadel or fortified part of city, usually on hill.
Acropolis at Athens: ancient citadel in Athens, containing Parthenon (5th century BC)
Temple of Athena Parthenos, built on the Acropolis in 447–432 BC to honor Athens'
patron goddess and to commemorate the recent Greek victory over the Persians.
Agora: public part of city, open-space used for assemblies and markets
Mercenary: paid/hired soldier (“soldier of fortune”); Persians had many of these, which
is perhaps why they were less successful, as the soldiers’ hearts were not into it.
Miletus: city of the Ionian Greeks in southwestern Asia Minor, was a powerful port in
7th and 6th centuries BC when more than 60 colonies founded on shores of Black Sea
and in Italy and Egypt. Colonies included Ionian Greeks.
10/2
Description of the Stele of Hammurabi and assignment
MACEDONIA:
Northern Part of Greece and into south Balkans
Power centers in ancient Greece were Athens, Sparta, Corinth
Peloponisian War caused widespread chaos and undid balance among city states.
Caused some to desire uniting leader.
Mount Olympus: where the gods were thought to have lived.
Macedonia was centered around the alluvial plain
-Grapes were key crop…made into wine
-Olynthus (sp?) was the capital of a league of cities in the area prior to Philip
attacked and destroying the city in the early part of his expansion. 346BC
Epirous was home to ruling houses in Macedonia who traced their ancestry to Achilles.
Macedonia was looked down on by the rest of Greece as barbarians
-Philip was key for moving Macedonians from tribal people to a more organized
society
Philip sent Alexander and other nobles to a boot camp/prep school run by Aristotle
Verdina was a site of Iron Age burials and contained many pottery that was similar to
earlier pottery from South Greece. Also home to significant theater, where many plays
premiered and where Philip was assasinated.
Macedonians Burials:
-Buried Dead instead of cremation or mummification
-Warriors burried with gold and weapons
-Women were burried with jewlery
-Burial resembles Miceneans (burials similar to those in homerian epics)
Alexander I
Ruled for 45 years (about 500BC to 450BC)
Acquised to Persian invasion but later switched side and helped drive them out of
Greece
Produced significant number of coins
Hericles
Adopted as a God after helping them defeat giants
Alexander and Philip felt they were his descendants
Philip came to throne after Macedonia had been ruled by weak kinds and was in danger
of being taken over
- within 23 years, philip made serious army of phalanx and heavy calvary. Phalanx had
long spears and similar to roman legion.
- Philip began to issue coins showing zeus (father of gods) and himself winning
olympics 386bc.
- Being olympic victor greatest source of pride in greece and was important in philips
drive to prove his right to be part of hellenic world
Coin of Athena had owl (her animal), olive branch (what she had given to the athenians)
Coin of Apollo (always young)
Gold for coins came from east macedonia where unlimited gold was able to be mined.
Very few portraits of Philip
Gold Medallion from Roman game dedicated to Philip: philip shown as mature
and with beard that made resemblence to zeus
Siege tactics of philip very advanced
Engineers perfected catapaults and light artillery that shot javelin like instrument
headed my three-pronged bronze head (the heads of the javelins carried Philips
name)
Other weapons had philips name on them
10/4


Alexander’s mother is named Olympias.
Alexander was born in 356 BC, three years after his father became king

Two stories show Alexander’s divinity:
o Very same night of birth, temple went up in flames
o Olympias didn’t sleep with Philip, rather, was through that Alex’s father
was an Egyptian king, in snake form




Alex’s parents picked out noble boys to bond with him
They became his royal pages with Alex as the leader
Plutarch tells a lot about Alex: he was always challenging his father.
o Said Alex was short, ruddy complexion
o Never seemed to be ill or sickly
o Followed Achilles: always strived to be the best
Bucephalus: Alex’s horse…he gentled him by approaching him from the other
side and became his horse for 22 years.
o Philip responded: truly Macedon is too small for you.
o When Bucephalus died, he game him Hero’s funeral and named city after
him.

Mother, Hephaisteron, and Bucephalus: the three important elements of
Alexander’s life.

Philip sent Alex and his pages to Mieza where they studied under Aristotle.
o Supposedly a sanctuary of Nymphs
o Alexander grew a great love for literature, especially Homer’s Iliud

Philip kept marrying wives: Atalus’ daughter married Philip. Atalus said “Now
we will have a REAL lineage.”
o Pissed Alexander off.

“Pothos” – yearning – never give up until you have seen or heard everything

Philip was assassinated autumn 336BC: walked into party, two men attacked and
killed him: assassins were crucified and killed.
Alexander immediately became king, wasted little time to go to power
Thebes revolted: Alexander burned it down and put them all into slavery


6. 10/11 Emilie Jellie
Lecture 10/11/06
Alexander after he becomes King
-
Cassander = enemy of Alex (son of regent while Alex is away)
Alex claims faced assassination threats
Army attack, Alex is king after Philip’s murdered in 336
Philip had already laid the groundwork for expedition into Asia Minor; he had
sent his General Permenio to Asia minor
Greeks say a Hageman must unite them
Alex  E. Aegean  Thrace  Turkey  Dardanelles – could not foresee end
of this situation
Goal: free coastal Gr. Cities of Asia minor from Persian rule
Alex’s navy’s master plan: capture ports in E. Med from Persians so the Persians
couldn’t interrupt his supply lines
Alex crossed at narrowest point of Dardanelles (near troy / Iliam) Euro  Asia
Battle of Grantus River: 1st of 4 great battles
Granikos River
Persians – no nudity, many Greek mercenaries
Memnon – Alex’s nemesis along coast of Asia Minor
Battle of Grantus was a great victory for Alex. The Greeks encircle Persian cavalry and
charge up the bank, 34 of Alex’s best men killed  1st example of Alex’s uncanny ability
to anticipate and make counter moves versus his opponents psych / tacizac weaknesses
and moves.
Ephesus – Temple of Anatolian Artemis
- People of Ephesus wanted to dedicate this temple to Alex but Alex said “it was
not appropriate to dedicate one gods temple to another”
Terms
Lysippus –a Greek sculptor of the 4th century BC
Apelles- a renowned painter of ancient Greece. Pliny the
Patronage - is the act of a so-called patron who supports or favors some individual,
family, group or institution.
Physiognomy- the study and judgement of a person's outer appearance, primarily the
face, reflects their character or personality
Abstraction- is the process of reducing the information content of a concept
Idealization- is the process by which scientific models assume facts about the
phenomenon being modeled that are certainly false
Realism- is commonly defined as a concern for fact or reality and a rejection of the
impractical and visionary
Caricaure - is a portrait that exaggerates or distorts the essence of a person or thing to
create an easily identifiable visual likeness.
Verism - is the artistic preference of contemporary everyday materials instead of the
heroic or legendary in art and literature; a form of realism
Azara Herm- is a Roman copy of a bust of Alexander that was almost certainly made by
the Greek sculptor Lysippus
Nemean Lion- was a vicious monster in Greek mythology that lived in Nemea.
Aegis- in the Iliad, is the shield or buckler of Zeus
Isotheos – equal to god
Apotheosis- means glorification, usually to a divine level
Oracle- is a person or agency considered to be a source of wise counsel or prophetic
opinion
Dardanelles- is a narrow strait in northwestern Turkey connecting the Aegean Sea to the
Sea of Marmara
Achilles- was a hero of the Trojan War, the central character and greatest warrior of
Homer's Iliad
Patroklos- In Greek mythology, as recorded in the Iliad by Homer, Pátroklos, son of
Menoetius, was Achilles' best friend, cousin and, according to some primary sources, his
lover.
Hecor- was a Trojan prince and one of the greatest fighters in the Trojan War.
Tumulus- is a mound of earth and stones raised over a grave or graves
Mercenaries- is a soldier who fights or engages in warfare primarily for private gain,
usually with little regard for ideological, national, or political considerations
Satrap- the name given to the governors of the provinces of ancient Median and Persian
Achaemenid empires and in several of their heirs, the Sassanid and later Hellenistic
empires.
Sardis- was the capital of the ancient kingdom of Lydia
Ephesus- was one of the great cities of the Ionian Greeks in Anatolia, located in Lydia
where the Cayster River (Küçük Menderes) flows into the Aegean Sea
Artemis of Ephesus- also known as Temple of Diana, was a temple dedicated to Artemis
completed around 550 BC at Ephesus (in present-day Turkey) under the Achaemenid
dynasty of the Persian Empire.


Alexander’s mother is named Olympias.
Alexander was born in 356 BC, three years after his father became king

Two stories show Alexander’s divinity:
o Very same night of birth, temple went up in flames
o Olympias didn’t sleep with Philip, rather, was through that Alex’s father
was an Egyptian king, in snake form




Alex’s parents picked out noble boys to bond with him
They became his royal pages with Alex as the leader
Plutarch tells a lot about Alex: he was always challenging his father.
o Said Alex was short, ruddy complexion
o Never seemed to be ill or sickly
o Followed Achilles: always strived to be the best
Bucephalus: Alex’s horse…he gentled him by approaching him from the other
side and became his horse for 22 years.
o Philip responded: truly Macedon is too small for you.
o When Bucephalus died, he game him Hero’s funeral and named city after
him.

Mother, Hephaisteron, and Bucephalus: the three important elements of
Alexander’s life.

Philip sent Alex and his pages to Mieza where they studied under Aristotle.
o Supposedly a sanctuary of Nymphs
o Alexander grew a great love for literature, especially Homer’s Iliud

Philip kept marrying wives: Atalus’ daughter married Philip. Atalus said “Now
we will have a REAL lineage.”
o Pissed Alexander off.

“Pothos” – yearning – never give up until you have seen or heard everything

Philip was assassinated autumn 336BC: walked into party, two men attacked and
killed him: assassins were crucified and killed.
Alexander immediately became king, wasted little time to go to power
Thebes revolted: Alexander burned it down and put them all into slavery


7. 10/13 James Lambert
Anatolia Taurus Mountains : Moves southward towards the Taurus mountains, border
the southern coast of what is now Turkey; Goes to rich plain called Salicia; Set up mint
somewhere
Cilicia Darius III : We know that Darius escaped fleeing into interior; Left entire camp,
mother, wife and children behind
Battle of Issus "oblique line" : Alexander loops around the Gulf of Issus; The
Persians are facing across the little river; The Macedonian army line up and face Persian
army; Darius on the side with Macedonian cavalry; He shows his intuitive genius: even
though he knows that Persian army much stronger and all held together by very tenuous
connection to great king; He hits them hard in the center and goes right straight for the
king; Will break the back of the attack and wipe them out; First time he faces such large
army; Go right for Darius, and Darius almost dies; “Only a king can kill a king”; Persians
stayed up all night, yelled shouted, he told them to get a good night sleep and they will
win tomorrow; Casualties probably severe, though Alexander’s men carried the day
Cyprus Levant : The countries that make up this shore are Syria, Lebanon and Israel;
Alexander’s campaign moving southward down this coast; Then having secured all of
this shore, moved toward one of the great prizes of ancient world Egypt
Syria Lebanon : see above
Phoenicians Sidon
sarcophagus
Abdolonymos
Mozart, "Shepherd King"
Siege of Tyre Herakles/Melkart : Requested that he could come into the island and
worship his ancestor, but they refused and shut him out. He began an extremely difficult
and very bloody five month siege of Tyre. He builds a causeway out to the island. After
five months, able to breach wall, there were visiting dignities of Carthage and took refuge
in the temple. He spared them, but killed all the Tyre. It was very bloody and costly.
Mole:
Jerusalem Gaza : Where supposedly Alexander took a side trip to visit Jewish temple –
Prostrated self in front of high priest - Seriously wounded in the siege, and got mad and
tied the governor on chariot and dragged around walls
Egypt Delta :
Memphis Pharaoh : looks normal but says it is Alexander
Apis Bull Alexandria : Had many important temples in Memphis (?) with deities to the
Avis bull – The manifestation of the god Avis –When each bull died, was mummified
and put in tomb
Deinokrates "grid plan" : like current cities with perpendicular lines
Ptolemy Libya : his successor – built lighthouse at Alexandria – one of seven wonders
of ancient world
Zeus Ammon Oasis of Siwa : There is an oracle of composite god there where a deity
gives responses to inquiries – Zeus Amon—oracle – Someone said found tomb of
Alexander that is at Siwa
Oracle deification : Seems to have changed Alexander’s own idea of who he was and
what he was destined to accomplished - Perhaps strengthened his own conviction he
would be like Achilles, live a short life and then be famous forever




Will my father take all the glory?
o The Oedipal complex, competition with and resentment with his father
o Some of us can empathize with this remark
The likelihood of an attack from the rear from the Persian army became a big
worry for him
o Next strategy, reduce the ports that the Persians could use
o Levant/Levantine
 The countries that make up this shore are Syria, Lebanon and Israel
 Alexander’s campaign moving southward down this coast
 Then having secured all of this shore, moved toward one of the
great prizes of ancient world Egypt
How did his ancestor Ptolemy transform Alexander’s influence there
Look at map
o Tutyk—guardian angel, seemed to let him survive the most severe wounds
o Takes Sargus, practically broke before there
o Goes around rugged coastal area
o Goes to Gordion, saw the episode of the Gordion knot
o Moves southward towards the Taurus mountains, border the southern
coast of what is now Turkey
o Goes to rich plain called Salicia
o Set up mint somewhere







Alexander not only takes over the mints, but as these Persian heads submit to him,
he awards them with positions (saytraps…Persian officers)
Alexander has another close call, he decides to take a swim in a really cold river
o He catches a great chill
o Camp followers—ladies who sleep with soldiers
o Sick to death, all the people competing for influence are telling him not to
take the medicine that the doctor wants to give you… he just wants to
poison you
o A lot of people want influence and do in competitors
o Already the case in the 20 years of Philips rise
o Alexander known for his heroism, he trusts his doctor and gets well
 To everyone’s surprise and some people’s consternation he goes
on to the second great battle
Battle of Issus
o Alexander loops around the Gulf of Issus
o The Persians are facing across the little river
o The Macedonian army line up and face Persian army
o Darius on the side with Macedonian cavalry
o He shows his intuitive genius: even though he knows that Persian army
much stronger and all held together by very tenuous connection to great
king
 He hits them hard in the center and goes right straight for the king
 Will break the back of the attack and wipe them out
o First time he faces such large army
o Go right for Darius, and Darius almost dies
o “Only a king can kill a king”
o Persians stayed up all night, yelled shouted, he told them to get a good
night sleep and they will win tomorrow
o Casualties probably severe, though Alexander’s men carried the day
Beloved by the army because he was the king and the leader
o Inspired men by going out front
o Had belief in own skills and right to win, spread that feeling and brought
to rest of army
o After battle would go around to wounded and help them bandage
themselves up
o He knew their names and would talk to them one by one
o Able to inspire tremendous moral
o Leadership quality helped to make him so productive
 Squandered later in life
Sidon and Tyre
o Not good places to do archeological war, because of all the modern
disasters happening
Go down the coast to Gaza
Jerusalem
o Where supposedly Alexander took a side trip to visit Jewish temple
o Prostrated self in front of high priest








The Alexander Mosaic
o See Alexander in battle
o Darius in chariot
 We know that Darius escaped fleeing into interior
 Left entire camp, mother, wife and children behind
o See Alexander on horse
Pablo Veronesi painting
o Alexander in red outfit with captains and companions
o Women and girls
o There is space between the two of them
o Alexander meets Darius’s women
Another version
o Alexander takes these women and says, “dear ladies, you are queens and
of royal stature. You will now be apart of my family and live in the same
kind of style you are accustomed to.”
o From horrible fear to wonderful act of chivalry
o We see his heroic ability to take medicine
o Some of his qualities that became particularly beloved in 16, 17, 18th
century paintings
Writes letter to Darius, your family will not be harmed
o Darius writes back and says let’s split things up
o We will rule together
o Also sends him some taunting things
o Alexander says no way, it is all mine, I want it all, be on your guard
 I will find you and I will prevail
As Alexander comes down the coast, gets to Psydon
o Open gates to him
o There is a royal household
o The king has become a gardener
o Alexander reinstates him to kingship
o Prospered
He comes to Tyre
o Completely different story
o Island off the coast
o Requested that he could come into the island and worship his ancestor
o But they refused and shut him out
o He began an extremely difficult and very bloody five month siege of Tyre
o Builds a causeway out to the island
o After five months, able to breach wall
 There were visiting dignities of Carthage and took refuge in the
temple
 Spared them, but killed all the Tyre
o Very bloody and costly
After Tyre, supposedly makes a reverential detour
o Being blessed by the Jewish high priest
Know he goes to Gaza






o Important strong hold that controlled access to somewhere
o Seized Gaza with fanatic resistant to him
o Seriously wounded in the siege, and got mad
o Tied the governor on chariot and dragged around walls
Alexander moves to Egypt
o Comes across the fortress
o Gets to Memphis
 Had many important temples with deities to the Avis bull
 The manifestation of the god Avis
 When each bull died, was mummified and put in tomb
 He heard about the marvels of Egypt, the colossal statues
o Persians seem to have treated the native Egyptian deities and priesthoods
very cruelly
o Alexander showed reverence towards these deities
o So he won the allegiance of the priesthoods very quickly
o May have been crowned pharaoh in Memphis
 Becomes divine
o Two statues of Ramses II still at Memphis
Founded Alexandria
o Was to become one of the most important cities of Mediterranean
o First of the many Alexandrias that he founded
o We know only that he gave one of his architects to lay out city in grid plan
o City wall and cemetery
o The causeway to the big harbor
o His successor Ptolemy built the lighthouse at Alexandria, one of seven
wonders of ancient world
o Has lagoon
We have an idea of the great variety of the versions of Alexander’s features
o Open mouth
o Recessed eyes
We look at pharaoh on wall of temple
o Looks like ordinary pharaoh
o The cartouches say very clearly that it is Alexander
o He is shown on some temples
For some reason he decides to go out on the coast
o Then turns inland to the terrible deserts that lie west of the Nile
o Water comes close to the surface
o To a place called Siwa
 There is an oracle there
 A deity gives responses to inquiries
 Oracle of composite god
 Zeus Amon—oracle
o Someone said found tomb of Alexander that is at Siwa
Zeus Amon appears in several different guises
o He is a ram
 Look at a black stone dedication



 Horns curl around
 Has wig and rises out of the base
Coin of syrini
o Zeus Amon, has the ram horns
Roman version of the head of Zeus Amon
o Looks like he is wering a ring hairdo
o Beardless
o Not that celebrated in the Roman world
The oracle Zeus Amon told Alexander something very special
o Seems to have changed Alexander’s own idea of who he was and what he
was destined to accomplished
o Perhaps strengthened his own conviction he would be like Achilles, live a
short life and then be famous forever
o See on the coin, there is a headband
o Magnificent hair
o Rising out of his cranium, we have the horn of Zeus Amon
o We see him as a deified creature
o He becomes deified and a god, all of his successors try to capitalized on
his success
 To legitimize their rule after his death
o Never shows on his coins that he is divine, ancestors do
o Coming into the near east where there are deified kings, we see fertile
ground to create new type of cult of divine kingship
o
8. 10/16 Meaghan Graul
1. Battle of Gaugemela: This battle took place in October of 331 B.C. This is the
battle where Alexander and his army defeated Darius and subsequently ended
Darius’ control of Persia and gave Alexander the title of Great King.
2. The Euphrates River and the Tigris River run parallel to each other originating
in present day Turkey. The land between these rivers is known as Mesopotamia
(“land between the rivers”). The rivers empty into the Persian Gulf.
3. Babylon: Babylon was under the Persian rule of Darius until 331 B.C. when
Alexander defeated Darius and the Babylon fell to the Macedonian conqueror.
Babylon flourished under Alexander.
4. Ziggurat: A type of raised temple tower built in and around Mesopotamia in the
time of Alexander. They are not believed to be places of public worship but
rather dwellings for the gods.
5. “Hanging Gardens”: Reportedly this garden in Babylon was built by King
Nebuchadnezzar around 600B.C. This massive manmade mountain had a garden
on top and was reportedly built to cheer up Nebuchadnezzar’s arranged wife
Amyitis who did not enjoy the dry and flat land of Mesopotamia.
6. Marduk: the city god of Babylon, comparable to Zeus
7. Ishtar Gate: One of the eight gates into the city of Babylon, located next to the
palace, decorated with beautifully glazed brick reliefs.
8. Zagros Mountains: Mountains bordering Persia .
9. Indo-European Languages: a family of hundreds of languages and dialects.
These include most major European languages as well as many of the Indian
subcontinent.
10. Iran/Persia: Persia is the traditional name for modern day Iran. There has been
some debate regarding the name.
11. Achaemenian Persian Empire: the first of the Persian empires to rule a large
part of what is now Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan and Turkey.
12. Fars Province-is one of the 30 provinces of Iran. It is in the south of the country
and its center is Shiraz. It is the original homeland of the Persian people, where
they spoke Farsi.
13. Farsi- Local name of the Persian language in Middle East. It is derived from the
language of the ancient Persian people. It is part of the Iranian branch of the
Indo-Iranian language family. Farsi has had an influence on the languages of
Mesopotamia.
14. Media/Medes-an ancient Iranian people who lived in the north, western, and
northwestern portions of present-day Iran. This region was known in Greek as
Media or Medea. By the 6th century BC, the Medes were able to establish an
empire that stretched from Aran province to north and Central Asia and
Afganistan, and which included many tributary states, including that more famous
country which eventually threw off the yoke of overlordship, then supplanted and
absorbed the Medean empire, the Achaemenid Persian Empire of Cyrus the great,
Darius I and Xerxes I fame.
The Medes are credited with the foundation of Iran as a nation and empire,
and established the first Iranian empire, the largest of its day until Cyrus the Great
established a unified empire of the Medes and Persians, often referred to as the
Achaemenid Persian Empire, by defeating his grandfather and overlord, Astyages
the shah of Media. Until that point, all Iranians were referred to as Mede or Mada.
Peoples as far north as the Caucasus have local historic traditions linking them to
the Medean people.
15. Elam- (2700 BC to 539 BC) one of the oldest civilizations. Elam was centered in the
far west and southwest of modern day Iran. It was preceded by what is known as the
Proto-Elamite period, which began around 3200 BC when Susa (later capital of the
Elamites) began to be influenced by the cultures of the Iran plateau to the east.
In the Old Elamite period, it consisted of kingdoms on the Iranian plateau, centered in
Anshan, and from the mid-2nd millennium BC, it centered in Susa in the Khuzestan
lowlands. Its culture played a crucial role in the Persian Empire, especially during the
Achaemenid dynasty that succeeded it, when the Elamite language remained in official
use. The Elamite period is considered a starting point for the history of Iran (although
there were older civilizations in Iranian plateau like Mannaeans kingdom in Iranian
Azarbaijan and Shahr-i Sokhta (Burned City) in Zabol and other indigenous civilizations
such as Jiroft Kingdom who lived in Iranian plateau but weren't as established as
Elamites). The Elamite language was not related to any Iranian languages, but may be
part of a larger group known as Elamo-Dravidian.
16. Susa-is a city in the Khuzestan province of Iran. It had an estimated population of
64,960 in 2005.
17. Persepolis-an ancient ceremonial capital of the second Iranian dynasty, the
Achaemenid Empire. To the ancient Persians, the city was known as Parsa, meaning the
city of Persians, Persepolis being the Greek interpretation of the name Περσες (meaning
Persian)+ πόλις (meaning city). In contemporary Iran the site is known as Takht-e
Jamshid (Throne of Jamshid).
The largest and most complex building in Persepolis was the audience hall or Apadana
with 36 columns, accessible by two monumental stairs.
18. Syncretism-is the attempt to reconcile disparate, even opposing, beliefs and to meld
practices of various schools of thought. It is especially associated with the attempt to
merge and analogize several originally discrete traditions, especially in the theology and
mythology of religion, and thus assert an underlying unity.
19. apadana-is the name of the great audience hall at Persepolis. It belongs to the oldest
building phase of the city, built during the first half of the 5th century BC as part of the
original design by Darius the Great, its construction completed by Xerxes I.
Old Persian apadāna "palace", rendered in Elamite ha-ha-da-na and in Babylonian, appa-da-an is etymologically ambiguous. It has been compared to Sanskrit apa-dhā
"concealment", Greek apo-thēkē "storehouse". The word survives in several languages as
a loan, including Arabic fadan, Armenian aparan-kh.
20. Naw Ruz (“New Year”)-is the traditional Iranian new year holiday in Iran,
Azerbaijan, Afghanistan, India, Turkey, Zanzibar, Albania, various countries of Central
Asia, as well as among the Kurds. As well as being a Zoroastrian holiday, it is also a holy
day for adherents of Sufism as well as Bahá'í Faith.
Naw Ruz marks first day of spring and the beginning of the Iranian year as well as the
beginning of the Bahá'í year. It is celebrated by some communities on March 21st and by
others on the day of the astronomical vernal equinox (start of spring), which may occur
on March 20th, 21st or 22nd.
21.. arson-is the crime of setting a property on fire for an unlawful or improper purpose.
22. proskynesis (prostration)- from the Ancient Greek words pros and kuneo literally
means "kissing towards", and refers to the traditional Persian act of prostrating oneself
before a person of higher social rank. To the Greeks, giving proskynesis to a mortal
seemed like a totally barbarian and ludicrous practice. The Greek idea of freedom,
independence, and autonomy dictated that bowing down to any mortal was out of the
question. They reserved such submissions for the gods only. This may have led some
Greeks to believe that the Persians worshipped their king, who was the only Persian
which received proskynesis from everyone, and other misinterpretations caused cultural
conflicts. Alexander the Great proposed this practice during his lifetime, in adapting to
the Persian cities he conquered, but it did not go over - in the end, he did not insist on the
practice.
23. Ecbatana-was the capital of Astyages (Istuvegü), which was taken by the Persian
emperor Cyrus the Great in the sixth year of Nabonidos (549 BC).
The city is assumed to be near Hamadan and located 400 km southwest of Tehran, in
modern day Iran; however in shed of very recent discoveries it is now thought that
Ecbatana was located hundred miles northwest of modern city of Hamedan, and located
in the Kurdish-inhabited areas of Iran in south of lake Urmia.
The Greeks supposed it to be the capital of Media, and ascribed its foundation to Deioces
(the Daiukku of the cuneiform inscriptions), who is said to have surrounded his palace in
it with seven concentric walls of different colors.
Under the Persian kings, Ecbatana, situated at the foot of Mount Elvend, became a
summer residence. Later, it became the capital of the Parthian kings.
24. “Great King”-is a semantic model for historical titles of Monarchs, suggesting an
elevated status among the host of Kings and minor Princes. This title is most usually
associated with the kings of Persia under the Achaemenid dynasty whose vast empire
lasted for 300 years up to the year 330 BC.
25. Bessus-(died summer 329 BC) was a Persian nobleman and satrap of Bactria and
Sogdiana, and later self-proclaimed king of Persia. He is best known for murdering and
usurping his king, Darius III, after the Persian army had been defeated by Alexander the
Great.
In the Battle of Gaugamela (October 1, 331 BC) he commanded the troops of his satrapy
under the command of Darius III against Alexander's Macedonian army. Bessus survived
the loss at Gaugamela and remained with Darius III, whose routed army eluded
Alexander's forces and spent the winter in Ecbatana. The next year Darius III attempted
to flee to Bactria in the east. Bessus, conspiring with fellow satraps, deposed Darius III.
He likely intended to surrender the king to the Macedonians, but Alexander ordered his
forces to brutally pursue the Persians even after receiving word of Darius' arrest. In July
330 BC, near Hecatompylus, the panicked conspirators mortally wounded Darius III and
left him to be found by a Macedonian soldier.
Bessus proclaimed himself the king of Persia and adopted the name Artaxerxes. His selfproclaimed ascension was not without precedent, since the satrap of Bactria is a title
often given to the noble next in the line of succession to the Persian throne. But since
most of the Persian empire had been conquered and Bessus only ruled over a loose
alliance of renegade provinces, historians do not generally regard him as an official
Persian king.
Bessus returned to Bactria and tried to organize a resistance among the eastern satrapies.
Alexander was forced to move his force to suppress the uprising in 329 BC. Frightened
by the approaching Macedonians, Bessus' own people arrested and surrendered him.
Alexander ordered that Bessus' nose and ears be cut off, which was a Persian custom for
those involved in rebellion and regicide; we learn from the Behistun inscription that
Darius I punished the usurper Phraortes in a similar manner.
His cause of death divides historians. Some say he was crucified in the place where
Darius III was killed, others that he was tortured and then decapitated in Ecbatana, and
some suggests that he was torn apart in Bactria after a Macedonian trial.
26. Bactria (=Afghanistan)-was the ancient Greek name of the country between the
range of the Hindu Kush and the Amu Darya (Oxus); its capital, Bactra or Balhika or
Bokhdi (now Balkh), was located in what is now Afghanistan.
Bactria was bounded on the east by the ancient region of Gandhara. The Bactrian
language is an Iranian language of the Indo-Iranian sub-family of the Indo-European
family.
27. Roxane-the Bactrian wife of Alexander the Great who was born earlier than the year
341 BC, although the precise date remains uncertain. She was the daughter of a nobleman
named Oxyartes of Balkh in Bactria (then eastern Persia, now northern Afghanistan). She
married Alexander in 327 BC after he captured her when the fortress of Sogdian Rock
surrendered to him. Balkh was the last of the Persian Empire's provinces to fall to
Alexander. The marriage was an attempt to reconcile the Bactrian satrapies to
Alexander's rule, although ancient sources describe Alexander's professed love for her.
Roxana accompanied him on his campaign in India in 326 BC. She bore him a
posthumous son called Alexander IV Aegus, after Alexander's sudden death at Babylon
in 323 BC. With the king's death, Roxana and her son became victims of the political
intrigues of the collapse of the Alexandrian empire. Roxana murdered Alexander's other
widow, Stateira, and Stateira's sister Drypteis. Roxana and her son were protected by
Alexander's mother, Olympias, in Macedon, but her assassination in 316 BC allowed
Cassander to seek kingship. Since Alexander IV Aegus was the legitimate heir to the
Alexandrian empire, Cassander murdered him along with Roxana c. 309 BC.
28. Oxus River-The Oxus River of the Greeks has been known to historical record for
literally thousands of years. Its present-day name is the Amu Darya (or Amu river) and its
course can be traced in any atlas. Turn to the map of Western Asia and find it: the river
springs up in the Pamir mountains, runs west through what was once Baluchistan, and
forms part of the border of what is now Afghanistan; here, along its banks, were once
lapis-lazuli mines famous throughout the ancient world. It runs, gradually curving
northward, between a desert marked Kizil Kum (or, the Red Sands) and another marked
Kara Kum (or, the Black Sands). Along the way, it supplies irrigation-water for the
ancient oasis kingdoms of Khiva and Khwarism. Eventually it empties itself into the
southern tip of the Aral Sea. However there is a problem with ancient accounts of the
river. Some of them say that the Oxus runs into the Caspian Sea, not the Aral. In ancient
times the Amu Darya was called the Oxus and figured importantly in the history of Persia
and in the campaigns of Alexander the Great.
29. Hindu Kush Mountains-The name Hindu Kush is usually applied to the whole of
the range separating the basins of the Kabul and Helmand rivers from that of the Amu
Darya (or ancient Oxus), or more specifically, to that part of the range to the northwest of
Kabul which was called the (Indian) Caucasus by the historians with Alexander. It was
also referred to by the Greeks as the "Paropamisos".
30. Bamiyan-is one of the thirty-four provinces of Afghanistan. It is in the centre of the
country. Its capital city is also called Bamiyan. Bamiyan city is the largest city in the
Hazarajat region of Afghanistan, and is the cultural capital of the Hazara ethnic group
that predominates in the area.
In antiquity, central Afghanistan was strategically placed to thrive from the Silk Road
caravans which criss-crossed the region trading between the Roman Empire, China,
Central and South Asia. Bamiyan was a stopping off point for many travellers. It was
here where elements of Greek, Persian and Buddhist art were combined into a unique
classical style, known as Greco-Buddhist art.
31. Ai Khanoum-(lit. “Moon Lady” in Uzbek), probably the historical Alexandria on the
Oxus (also possibly later named Eucratidia), was founded in the 4th century BC,
following the conquests of Alexander the Great. The city is located in the Kunduz area in
northeastern Afghanistan, at the confluence of the Oxus river (today's Amu Darya) and
the Kokcha river
The site was excavated through archaeological searches by a French DAFA mission
under Paul Bernard between 1964 and 1978, as well as Russian scientists. The searches
had to be abandoned with the onset of the Soviet war in Afghanistan, during which the
site was looted and used as a battleground, leaving very little of the original material.
32. Conspiracy of Philotas-(death in October 330 BC) was the son of Parmenion,
Alexander's most experienced and talented general. Philotas was never able to penetrate
Alexander's inner circle. He was widely considered to be pompous and as a result often
earned the King's disfavor. However, there was no doubt that he was an excellent leader
and officer which earned him the appointment as the leader of the Companion Cavalry,
the most sought after position in Alexander's army.
His death marks one of the darker moments in the King's history. One day in camp
Philotas heard a second or third hand story of a plot by the royal pages to slay Alexander.
Philotas neither said nor did anything at this news. It isn't known whether he considered
the threat minimal or whether he simply allowed it to proceed. Either way, the plot
traveled to the ears of the king who after a short and truly unfair trial executed Philotas
on extremely weak evidence; however, Philotas had no doubt spoken very incautiously
on some sensitive subjects, such as Alexander's visit to Ammon. The king then sent
messengers to murder Parmenion before he could hear the news of his son's death and
possibly start a rebellion.
33. Parmenio- was a Macedonian general in the service of Philip II of Macedon and
Alexander the Great.
Parmenion was the son of a Macedonian nobleman Philotas. During the reign of Philip II
Parmenion obtained a great victory over the Illyrians in 356 BC; he was one of the
Macedonian delegates appointed to conclude peace with Athens in 346 BC, and was sent
with an army to uphold Macedonian influence in Euboea in 342 BC.
General of Philip
Parmenion was Philip II's most trusted general, and a major influence in the formation of
the tough, disciplined and professional Macedonian army whose tactics would dominate
land warfare for the succeeding centuries, arguably until the Marian Reforms of the
Roman army in 107 BC. The essential tactical strategy of Macedon under Philip (and
perfected by Alexander) was to hold the enemy infantry and central cavalry units in place
with the sarissa armed phalanx along the centre and left, while the superb cavalry forces
would wheel around and attack decisively from the flank. This tactic, while by no means
innovative, was performed using a variety of new military concepts of the time. One of
the most effective was the phalanx technique of advancing in the oblique, which allowed
a phalanx to become an offensive force. Using this formation and arming the infantry
with a new weapon, the sarissa, an eighteen-foot pike, made them devastating against
more conventional infantry, especially the Greek hoplites. Parmenio is generally credited
today with being instrumental in the realisation of Philip's vision. Certainly his
appointment as second in command to the much younger Alexander would seem to imply
a great level of esteem.
General of Alexander
In 336 BC he was sent, with an army of 10,000 men, with Amyntas Andromenes and
Attalus to make preparations for the reduction of Asia. After Alexander was recognized
as king in Macedonia Parmenion himself became Alexander's second in command of the
army. He is said to have acted as a foil to his commander's innovative strategies, by
expertly formulating the orthodox strategy. For instance, According to Arrian's Anabasis
at the Granicus Parmenion suggested delay before the attack, as the army had already
marched all day as well as other political and geograpical issues. Alexander attacked
across the river regardless of this (justifiable) counsel, and gained a victory. However, it
appears that luck and poor morale and tactics on the Persian side were a significant part
of this success, which appears to have tempered any youthful brashness on the part of
Alexander. The same source states Parmenion to have counseled a night attack on
Darius's assembled superior force at the Battle of Gaugamela, which Alexander took as
evidence that Darius would keep his troops at the ready through the night and offer the
Macedonians some advantage if they rested for a battle in daylight. Parmenion would
continue to be significant up until the conquest of Babylon, commanding the left wing in
the battles of Issus and Gaugamela, a critical part in the overall Macedonian battle plan,
allowing the king to strike the decisive blow.
The Fall of Parmenion
After the conquest of Drangiana, Alexander was informed that Philotas, son of
Parmenion, was involved in a conspiracy against his life. Philotas was condemned by the
army and put to death. Alexander, thinking it dangerous to allow the father to live, sent
orders to Media for the assassination of Parmenion. There was no proof that Parmenion
was in any way implicated in the conspiracy, but he was not even afforded the
opportunity of defending himself. In Alexander's defence, a disaffected Parmenion was a
serious threat, especially since he was commanding an army and was stationed near
Alexander's treasury and on his supply lines. Also, as head of Philotas' family Parmenion
would have been held responsible for his actions, despite a lack of evidence connecting
them to him. He was executed by three officers in Media in 330 BC. He was about
seventy.
34. “Black Cleitas”-Greek vase painter and potter who flourished in 580-550 BC in
Greece. An outstanding master of the Archaic period, he executed the decorations on the
François Vase (c. 570 BC), discovered in 1844 in an Etruscan tomb. Painted in the blackfigure style, the large vase, signed and decorated with more than 200 figures, is among
the greatest treasures of Greek art. Other vases and fragments attributed to him are in the
Acropolis Museum, Athens.
35. paranoia- is an excessive anxiety or fear concerning one's own well-being which is
considered irrational and excessive, perhaps to the point of being a psychosis. This
typically includes persecutory beliefs concerning a likely threat, or a belief in a
conspiracy theory. In the original Greek, παράνοια (paranoia) means simply madness
(para = outside; nous = mind) and it is this use which was traditionally used in psychiatry
to describe any delusional state. However, the exact use of the term has changed over
time in medicine, and because of this, modern psychiatric usage may vary.
36. megalomania-is a psychopathological condition characterized by delusional fantasies
of wealth, power, or omnipotence. It includes an obsession with grandiose or extravagant
things or actions. It is sometimes symptomatic of manic or paranoid disorders
37. pothos-was the longing towards an unattainable goal, one of the Erotes of Aphrodite,
and a son of Zephyrus and Iris His brothers are Himeros and Anteros
38. “ends of the earth”-Alexander the Great wanted to conquer all of the lands to the
ends of the earth. This mindset was what eventually led to his demise.
Lecture 10/16/06
“Dividing line in Alexander’s career”
*So far, Alexander has gone through the Taurus Mountains into Cilicia, where he had his
second major battle with Darius, the Battle of Issus. Darius lost and fled, leaving his
family in the hands of Alexander. Darius’ family were treated royally, showing
Alexander’s chivalry.
He then moves south along the Levantine coast to Sidon where he was well received and
on to Tyre where he was not well received.
Tyre: Five month siege ensued, perhaps one of Alexander’s most difficult battles.
Alexander breached the people of Tyre by using his fleet and the causeway he built
connecting the mainland to the island of Tyre. Alexander was merciful to people who
accepted him but he could be bloody and brutal to those who did not accept him. (We’ll
see this side of him when he reaches Gaza. There Alexander was wounded and so he
drags the commander around behind a chariot until he is dead.)
*Alexander was welcomed in Egypt because he paid his respect to the Egyptian gods.
He was seen there as a liberator and someone who showed the Egyptian life and culture
respect. While in Egypt, Alexander goes to the river delta and founds a city, Alexandria.
Alexander then goes out into the dessert to the Siwa Oasis and he is told something by an
oracle of the composite of the Greek god, Zeus Ammon. It seems that Alexander learned
that he may have been a descendent of Zeus because at this point it seems his plans
changed. Initially his plans were to drive the Persians out of western Asia Minor and to
free the Greek cities long the border. Because he was victorious, they seem to have
decided to go over the mountains. With most of the Mediterranean secure he didn’t need
to worry so much about revolt in Macedonia, he had a general left as regent of the area.
The lines of communication were easy by sea.
*Now Alexander decides to move into the heartland of the Achaemenian Empire.
Alexander is centered around Mesopotamia and the Tigris and the Euphrates Rivers.
Babylon, the great capital, was notorious for riches and lifestyle. Battle of Gaugemela
took place along the Tigris River. Darius had reorganized after Issus. Darius brought
huge armies with chariots, mercenaries and foot soldiers. He also brought war elephants.
Macedonians under Alexander fought with their phalanx and Parmenio, Philip’s general.
The Persians were a “motley crew” because they were all different and spoke different
languages. Macedonians were united under one language, could make detailed
preparations. Alexander knew the Persians could fall apart. This battle proved to end the
Achaemenian Persian Empire because the Macedonians went right for Darius and the
Perisans crumbled. Darius escaped with his cavalry. Macedonians chased them until the
Persians, in such disarray, posed no threat. The Persians had tried to use chariots and
Macedonians just let them go through. The Macedonians just stepped to one side and
then slaughtered the Persians. The road to Babylon was now clear.
*Charles Le Brun representations depicted episodes in Alexander’s career
* Ziggurat: temple to some of the great deities.
* The Hanging Gardens of Babylon: rooftop garden, we don’t know what they looked
like, one of the seven wonders of the world.
* Ishtar Gate: gate into Babylon, beautifully glazed brick tile in relief, very showy.
*Alexander decides to have a month of rest and relaxation for his troops. Alexander
promotes Moseus to be the governor of all Iraq. Moseus was a Persian who succumbed
to Alexander. Alexander goes to Susa in Elam. Susa was a great cental administrative
center of the Persian Empire, on the Royal Road. Royal Road had messengers, kings
used them to keep in touch. Alexander traverses the heart of the Achaemenian empire,
goes to Persepolis. Susa was one of the great treasuries of the Achaemenian Empire,
Alexander finds the “Fort Knox” of the empire. Alexander sent his soldiers home very
rich. Prosperity and consumption in Macedonia increased. Persepolis: they spoke Farsi,
in Fars Province.
*Northern part of present Iraq is Media. When somebody submits to the Persian side
from Greek side he medized.
*Alexander finds a great terrace with lots of palaces and building built by Darius. There
were great columned halls, taken over by the Greeks for meeting halls. Columns had
animal and people carved in relief. Give you an idea of Achaemenian art. There’s a
deliberate syncretism in this art, supposedly picture of people bringing offerings to the
king for the Iranian Naw Ruz (New Year). Great King depicted on the art, triumphing
over wild animals, or seated with staff. Prostration: the ritual prayer that all muslims do.
*Alexander took on these Muslim customs, required people to prostrate. Alexander is
now the ruler of Achaemenian and a pharaoh and has a lot of responsibility! Alexander
finds a monumental tomb of Cyrus and Alexander restores the ransacked tomb.
*Alexander’s troops chase Darius because he tries to raise yet another army. Bessus
captures Darius and tries to put on the crown, he was a usurper. Bessus killed Darius.
There is an Islamic text showing Alexander being consoling to the dying Darius. In the
Alexander romance we learn that Alexander and Darius are actually half brothers.
*Alexander takes off into central Asia. These campaigns take years and the Macedonians
wanted to go home! Alexandra marries a princess of the area named Roxane. The
marriage is often portrayed in paintings. They had a child who later suffered that same
fate as Alexander and his family. Lots of cities named Alexandria…the furthest named
Alexandria Ecsentria. Alexander turned south and moves into present day Afghanistan
across the Hindu Kush Mountains.
*He becomes increasingly paranoid. He’s isolated from everyone!! Alexander tries to
eliminate possible powers below him, like Parmenio. Absolute power tends to corrupt
absolutely.
9. 10/18 Marcus Janke
Study Guide for 10/18 (Alex in India, the Death of Alex)
Author: Marc Janke mjanke@fas
Vocabulary Terms:
Alexander’s death in Babylon: June, 323 BC
Ecbatana—a city that Alex went through in pursuit of Darius and returning to Babylon,
where Bessus killed Darius, and Alex then killed Bessus because Alex wanted to kill
Darius
Hephaistion—Alex’s boyhood friend and probable lover, when he died in Ecbatana on
the way back. Alex was totally inconsolable and threw a huge athletic competition, etc.
Hydaspes River—one of the northern branches that merges with others to become the
Indus River
Indus River—the river that Alex crossed. It is located in modern Pakistan.
Porus—the king of a very large chunk of India/South Asia that Alex defeated; he is the
one that said “Treat me like a king,” so Alex did
Jainism—a sect of Hinduism
Opis—place out in far Asia where Alex’s army mutinied and they were forced to turn
back; Alex punished them by walking through the desert later.
Siddharta Gautama Buddha—the founder of Buddhism in India, although Buddhism
ironically died out mostly in India and became hugely popular in China.
Stupa—large relic structures (the one we saw in lecture was like a big stone dome) that
contain some body part or object related to the Buddha (Siddharta)
Alex’s Route
Crosses Hydaspes River, has fourth great battle against Porus (Battle of Hydaspes), then
his men went down the Indus River, walked through the desert as punishment for mutinying, then returned to Pasargadae and finally to Babylon.
Notes on Alex’s Death
No one really knows why he died. He had a fever; some say he died of a broken heart
from Hephaistion’s death. They embalmed his body rather than cremating it, which was
normally done to Macedonian rulers. His body was carried in an enormous golden
shrine. Ptolemy (a Greek ruler of Egypt—remember that Alex conquered Egypt, they
were glad to have him, and installed Greek rulers) hijacked his body to Memphis, Egypt,
and eventually puts the corpse in a tomb. Ptolemy took the body in order to be a more
legitimate ruler, according to professor
10. 10/23 Brian Rose, forthcoming
11. 10/25 nobody 
10/27 movie: forthcoming
yes Section Notes! Monica Vanderslice
Section #1: “Culture and Representation of Kingship”
Formal Analysis
Form: What the art is made of, how it is constructed, tied to the artists’ style
What is the artist telling you with form? The artist makes careful choices about form.
Form: line, shape, material, texture, color, composition, proportions, dimensions
Sculptures:
1. Man and woman standing side by side. Found at Giza. Material is unpainted
diorite. Made by Menkaure Ca 2500.
2. (by Kouros 525 BC, Anabyssos, Greece) Made of Marble, nude man, little smirk
on face, eyes closed, long curls, idealized body, careful attention to lines and
shapes of muscles, heroic nudity (ideal athletic body)
3. (by Kritiosbox 480 BC) Late archaic, marble, no forearms, shift in the hips and
tilt to the head (realistic), soft features (invoke youth), contrapposto adds to
movement of the sculpture
4. (by Polykleitus, called “Doryphoros” 450 BC classical period) top form of
classical greek sculpture, contrapposto, very defined face, walking
5. (Lysippus’ bronze Alexander, 4th century BC) arms out (one broken off), a “real”
person, idealization of man into his own person
Section #2
Recognizing Alexander
1. Portraiture in the ancient world
2. Power symbols of Alexander
3. propaganda portraits
Elements to emphasize in a leader: posture, height, facial features chiseled, musculature,
hair, surroundings, eyes, idealize the figure (gloss over imperfections)
Realism vs. Idealism
-Differing images of Alexander leave doubts as to his real looks
-Gabbli statuette: broad shoulders emphasized
-Youthful beauty vs. a beard
The discovery of Philip II’s tomb led to argument over Alexander’s true looks
-There was an expression of grief on Alexanders face in tomb
-Detail in the heads showed they were of a later style
-Archaeologists say that the heads aren’t really Alexander but really his “ethos” or
an idealized Alexander
-Idealization is a conscious action by sculptors
Elements of Alexander to look for: golden hair, fair skin, rosy cheeks, short, readiness,
very athletic, melting gaze, recessed eyes
Section #3
Archaeological site in Pella
-Site discovered in 1957
-alexander born here in 356
-only floors of the houses remained
-were once the luxurious mansions of Dionysus and Helen
Mosaic “The Lion Hunt” 340 BC
-from Dionysus’ House
-Alexander and his friend Kraterous fighting a lion
-it’s a narrative
-has fine detail
-musculature, facial expressions, clothing
-lions face and expression also detailed
-this mosaic is NOT encaustic (stones aren’t melted together)
-made with natural pebbles
-scale: 5 meters long, 4 meters wide
-series of layers
-original layer: limestone or straw makes a course base. Draws a
Preliminary sketch and divides into sections (giornattas)
-second fine layer of plaster (can no longer see sketch)
-place all pebbles in one day
Linear perspective: everything comes to the vanishing point
Foreshortening: not a frontal view, from an angle. Objects closer to view are larger.
Nemian lion myth: The only way to kill the lion was with his own claw. This was a
Hercules myth and Alexander tried to emulate Hercules.
Mosaic “Stag Hunt”
-from house of Helen
-Alexander and Kraterous again
-Alexander is dominant figure
-has signature of artist “Gnosis made this”
-Uses perspective and foreshortening
-bodies angled
-size difference
-overlapping bodies
-heroic nudity again
Site at Vergina- The mounds of the tombs at vergina
-kings were traditionally buried here
-Archaeologist Adronicus discovered in 1977
-Hammond visited in 78 (author of our reading) says it’s Philip II
-Green (other article author) says not sure it’s Philip II
-The Fresco (painting on wall)
-difficult because the colors will fade on a wall
-1st course layer called arricio has preparatory drawing like mosaic
-paint must be used very quickly so the paint and wall dry together
“Hunt Scene” fresco at Vergina
-more people hunting
-hunting is a symbol of kingship
-has a lion and heroic nudity again
-central figure is Philip II, and just to his left with a spear is Alexander
Readings
Talked to him Monday 1. Sourcebook 1: Bieber, "Alexander the Conqueror of Europe
and Persia (336-330)," p. 29-38.
Sourcebook 2 : Badian, "Alexander the Great and the Unity of Mankind," p. 425-444.
Sourcebook 1
 In 336 BC at the age of 20, Alexander succeeded his father, inheriting a
Macedonia that reached from the Balkan Mountains to the coast of the Aegean
Sea
 He first hurried through Thessaly to Greece, pacified Thebes, and also Athens,
which like his father he treated leniently, and had himself elected general to the
League in place of Philip
 In 335 he went north the Danube, defeated the Illyrians and the Triballi and made
an alliance with the Celts of the upper Danube to protect the Danube against the
Getae, thus securing the northern frontier of his Empire
 In 334, as commander-in-chief of the Corinthian League, he crossed the
Dardanelles with an army of 35-40k men
 As a result of battle at Granicus, Alexander conquered all the Greek cities of Asia
Minor, including Miletus and Ephesus; not all shared his romantic enthusiasm for
the free democratic government which he tried to institute everywhere
 Decisive victory over Darius in the battle of Issus in 333 BC secured for
Alexander the possession of all Asia Minor; seizure of the treasure of the Persian
king in Damascus put an end to the financial difficulties of Alexander
 Took Tyre after seven months of siege in 332















Alexander now wanted all of Persia (which was supposed to be all civilized Asia)
even after Darius begged and offered a sizable portion of his lands to Alexander
Alexander then went and conquered Egypt easily because Persian rule was
resented there
In 331, returns to Asia and conqueres the northern and eastern provinces of the
Persian Empire
Alexander’s last battle with Darius occurs at Arbela and Gaugamela where
Alexander won under great personal danger. Darius flees and Alexander now
captures Babylon as a result of victory.
When Alexander became king he is said to have chosen the best artists of his time
to portray him.
The only inscribed herm of Alexander is now at the Louvre (Azara herm) and is
undoubtedly done by Lysippos; descriptions of Alexander are admittedly based on
the portraits of Lysippos
“the poise of the neck, which was bent slightly to the left (in contrast to the turn of
the head to the right), and the melting glance of his eyes”- Plutarch
“the liquid softness and brightness of his eyes”- Plutarch
lion’s mane = anastole
Portraits were made to express not only the character but also the mood of the
great conqueror
Bronze statuette: “The left arm is stretched out horizontally and probably held the
spear, while the right hand points to the earth which Alexander had subdued by
means of his spear.” Shows nothing of that tendency toward deification which
began with Alexander’s adoption by Zeus Ammon
Lysippos was contrasting Alexander with Zeus, representing him as the conqueror
proud of his own manly, not divine powers. The date of the original must be
before 330, which is when Alexander started to take his image more seriously in a
divine sense
Lysippos conceived of Alexander as the great military genius and statesman of
exceptional but human gifts
“Lysippos the sculptor blamed the painter Apelles for drawing Alexander with a
thunderbolt in his hand. He himself had represented Alexander holding a spear,
which was natural and proper for him as a weapon, the glory of which time would
not rob him.”
Apelles was probably the first artist to give Alexander the qualities of a God, a
usage which later became general.
Sourcebook 2
 Tarn creates Alexander the dreamer: “dreaming of one of the supreme revolutions
in the world’s outlook, namely the brotherhood of man or the unity of mankind
 That the revolution in the world’s [i.e., the Greek world’s] outlook did take place
is a fact but that Alexander the Dreamer claims credit for re-orientation of the
world to being more open for the Roman Empire and Christianity is a fallacy
 “The Fatherhood of God”; To Tarn, Alexander developed an idea with three
facets:



o Brotherhood of man: God is the common Father of mankind
o Unity of mankind: Alexandeer’s dream of the various races of mankind, so
far as known to him, becoming of one mind together and living in unity
and concord
o Various peoples of his Empire might be partners in the realm rather than
subjects
“Banquet at Opis”
o It is clear to Arrian (ie to his source) the whole affair is not of outstanding
importance
o That the banquet marked a greater reconciliation or even the official
conclusion of peace is neither stated nor implied in the source
o There is no implication that each group had only one table and indeed
numbers make it impossible
o The inspiring ceremonial of an international love-feast is purely imaginary
and due to misinterpretation of an unusually precise source.
o We proceed to moore it to whatever best fits in with our preconceptions
o If men cannot be partners of Zeus in his power, neither can they be
partners of Zeus’ son in his. And Alexander, almost at the very time when
these events were going on, was forcing the Greek cities to worship him as
a god. That man certainly did no intend to become the figure-head of a
free Commonwealth of Nations
“Eratosthenes and Plutarch”
o Eratosthenes disapproved of those who divided mankind into Greeks and
barbarians and of those who advised Alexander to treat Greeks as friends
and barbarians as enemies
o Plutarch: for Alexander, believing that he had a divine mission to unite the
whole world under his beneficient rule, distinguished men only according
to virtue and vice, uniting races by physical and cultural amalgamation.
o Alexander, despite advice to the contrary, did not discriminate between
Greeks and barbarians
o There is no mention in Strabo of Alexander’s divine mission or of the
mixture of races and cultures
o We must firmly assign to the realym of fantasy any attempt to connect
Eratosthenes with the enunciation of Alexander’s divine mission, with the
simile of the cup, or even with Plutarch’s reference to the race mixture of
the Susa marriages between Greco-Macedonians and Iranian brides.
o It is quite clear to the unprejudiced reader that, if the krater of Plutarch’s
simile does go back to a real vessel, it will be, not at Opis, but at the
celebration of the Susa marriages, that its use will have been recorded by
an observer, so that to Plutarch it became connected with, and symbolical
of, that occasion
“Aristotlte and the Barbarians”
o Aristotle is regarded as having both described barbarians as natural
enemies and assimilated them to animals and plants.
o Aristotle clearly implies that barbarians are by nature slaves
o Still only the Greeks that combine the best virtues of the best barbariansn
o Aristotle’s views on barbarians changed away from the popular
philoshopical concept under the influence of his—and his pupils’—
empirical studies
o There is no evidence that the King’s own ideas were in any way
responsible
o There is not a word in Aristotle that suggests any such influence
o In Cicero’s opinion, Alexander completely degenerated after his
accession.
o Aristotle: the difference between natural master and natural slave is as
great as that between man and animals, and that it is for the advantage of
the natural slave, as of domestic animals, to be ruled.
o Aristotle did advise Alexander to treat barbarians as slaves and like
animals and this would be as much for their own good as for the ruler’s
2. Sourcebook 10 : Keegan, "Alexander the Great and Heroic Leadership," p. 13-40, 4791.
Alexander was a ridiculous conquerer, we may compare him to say, a Napoleon
who did not stop at Scotland, not only decides to conquer England, but to continue
France, Spain, the Holy Roman Empire, Turkey and Russia. “Alexander first made
himself master of the Greek wolrd, then translated himself to another, the Persian empire,
and finally ventured into a third in India, at his death in june 323BC, he had subdued the
larges tract of the earth’s surface ever to be conquered by a single individual—Genghis
Khan’s short lived empire excepted
Son of Philip II and wife Olympias. Philip had already married three times and
had 3 legitimate children. Marriage with Olympias was a “love match”, the love
contracted at a celebration of certain mysterious religious ceremonies a year before
Alexander’s birth on Aegean island of Samothrace (this island not having a “demure”
reputatiojn). But Olympias, already divorced, had no demure reputation and never did get
one. Alexander was the immediate outcome of their passion. But not until he was about
12 do we know of his father taking an interest in his son’s upbringing. Alexander loved
epic poetry:homer. What it meant to him was disregard for personal danger, the running
of risk for its own sake, the dramatic challenge of single combat, the display of life-anddeath courage under the eyes of men equal in their masculinity. The homer influence also
mingled with his mothers eccentric and extreme religious beliefs. Isocrates jealous
because it was Aristotle (already famous for being Plato’s smartest pupil) because Philp
chose Aristotle to teach Alexander and other Macedonian young noblemen at a school at
Mieza. Aristotle was a jack of all trades of his time, “universal man” knowing and
writing on music, medicine, astronomy, magnets, optics, homer, zoology, began
embryology. Aristotle also made Alexander a special text of the Illiad and wrote
pamphlets on kingship, colonies, arguing something from one side then the other
(eristics). The fascination of the Aristotle-Alexander encounter is not about a meeting of
minds but a juxtaposition of opposites. Many claim that Aristotle never did succeed in
influencing the politics of philosophy of Alexander.
Philip II may have had more influence on his son. Philip II might have
accomplished just as much as Alexander if he hadn’t died. But he was too caught up with
unifying his own Macedonia and keeping their barbarian neighbors subjugated. It was an
army “open to talents” where the king’s new and old followers competed for position in
demonstrations of loyalty and self-disregard.
Alexander went to war at 16 (right after his 2 years at Mieza) and was appointed
regent and subdued a dissident tribe. 2 years later more responsibility and major
achievement in destroying Sacred Band (Theban elite) at Chaeronea. This important for
his future because it demonstrated his power of command, also validated his claim to the
succession. 337 succession issue revived when Philip repudiated Olympias and took a
new young Maceonian wife who had already borne him a daughter and might be pregnant
with a son. ALEXANDER VERY MAD, both for himself and his mother being spurned.
He knew that though he was respected at court for being a good warrior, he was also
resented because he was half greek and already acted too much like a king. Within a year
Philip was stabbed through the ribs by a bodyguard. Alexander propogated the rumor that
it was a political murder by the Persians. Olympias highly suspected though. All other
threats to Alexander’s claim to the throne murdered as well (predecessor of Philip, 2
potential pretenders, a joint commander who looked after Philips last wife and Olympias
killed this wife’s baby and then the wife commits suicide). This much murder not
uncommon though it sounds bad. Tried not to kill too many people because did not want
too many enemies.
Alexander’s look: brains, grace, charm, skill at arms, SELF CONFIDENCE,
looks, not tall but well proportioned, distinctively handsome, noble brow and lips and jut
of nose, curling hair into peak at forehead, skin smooth and a little florid, neck tilt and
upward gaze, supposed sweet aroma, (quickness of speech, gait, bearlessness imitated by
his circle and better verified). Effect: urgent impatient boyishness that determined how
western heroes depicted from then on.
Alexander consistently marching from 335 to 325 BC, with a major battle or siege
at least once every year. First campaign= old tribal enemies, Triballians, Getaie, and
Illyrians who had escaped from Macedonian lordship. True purpose though was to invade
Persian empire. Free Greeks feared and hated Persians as instruments of a despotic pwer
bend on robbing them of liberty and reducing them to subject status. Alexander used
intimidating tactics and moral advantage (ex. Blatantly driving into the middle and
strongest part of the Persian line). His style of battle: precipitate, apparently reckless,
highly personal. Battle of Pinarus against Darius very tough position. Again moral
advantage because Perisans relying on the steepness of the river banks to protect them.
Brute force was his tool. Darius begs for the lives of the women and children, Alexander
outrightly refuses. Makes pilgrimage in Egypt to shrine of god Ammon at Siwah oasis,
very deep psychological experience for Alexander, though greatly unexplained.
Alexander needed a crowning victory and even though the Persian army outnumbered the
Macedonian 3:1 Alexander saw that the Persians for all their material superiority were
vulnerable to the confrontation of a superior will, and of the strength of his will he had no
doubt. Darius used linear confrontation, generally very good, but Alexander used
“Oblique Order” coming in at an angle and totally defeated Darius to become “Lord of
Asia”.
Alexander’s material resources were few, VERY disproportionate to the
achievement he was to win with them. Macedon a premier greek state, but greeks did not
see macedons as truly greek, macedons spoke greek in a rustic uncultivated style.
Traditions very un-greek. Macedonia=Monarchy, theoretically elective, but in reality
hereditary. Athenians could not tolerate monarchy, individualism greatly valued, esp
disturbed by the “king as liason to gods” thing tilting towards theocracy. But the
Macedonians unity had brought strength, and unlike the greeks whose acutely developed
sense of worth derived from individualism and was diminished by and degree of
subordination, Macedonians had enlarged self-confidence by merging the identity of
scattered tribes.
ARMY: The Macedonian army was a dynastic one in that it comprised an inner
core of warriors whose relationship to its royal leader was a personal, ultimately a blood
one; the outer tiers made up of the less elite. The remainder were mercenaries whom the
house of Macedon was ready to employ because they had enough cash to do so and also
because mercenaries had a proven ability to generate plunder. There were about 4,000
mercenaries in his expeditionary force, though he “hardened his heart against greeks who
had taken paid service under the Persian king”. Innermost core of army was the
Companion Cavalry. Macedonians were a heroic society at the centre of which stood the
war leader and his band of fellow warriors. To keep the regard of such men, the ward
leader had constantly to excel- not only in battle but on the hunting field, in
horsemanship, in love, in conversation, in boast, and in feasting and drinking. To do the
right thing in the present moment, and to suffer the consequences as they might be was
the code by which the Companions lived. Phalanx warfare: a tightly packed group with
shields and spears, sometimes 8 men deep, could keep attackers at bay, “as happens in the
flight of cranes”. Alexander’s system seem s to have been an inherited one, originally
devised by his father. The traveled with food etc. on their backs, no carriages, only some
pack animals. Always still somehow had enough food (good calculations) until the very
end of his wanderings when ambition got the better of his judgment.
47-91
Theatricality was at the very heart of Alexander’s style of leadership as it perhaps
must be of any leadership style. Whenever he had a victory to celebrate or the
overcoming of an ordeal for which to give thanks, he staged literary and athletic
ceremonies (on his arrival to Egypt after crossing the desert of Sinai, after his return from
the desert pilgrimage to Siwah). He was in the strongest sense a brilliant theatrical
performer in his own right. Not only were his appearances in the field of battle dramatic
stage entries, tellingly timed and significantly costumed, but he also had the artist’s sense
of how to dramatize his own behavior when the mood of his followers failed to respond
to reason and argument. 2 of his theatrical stunts are known above the others 1. His
cutting of the Gordian Knot (took his sword to a famously tangled skein no man had been
able to unravel, thus presumable demonstrating a radical impatience. 2. The taming of
Bucephalus: the taming of one of those fractious beasts whose breaking by a young
unknown is a favorite western movie staple, the two were to be inseparable for 20 years,
though he often used a different horse for the edge of battle.
The relationship of the great with their doctors is very interesting. Alexander
trusted his doctor Philip the Acarnian even against a note from Parmenio saying that
Philip was trying to poison him. The notable episodes of over-acting follow crises in his
relationships with his followers, the first when he fell into the notorious blood-rage with
Cleitus, the second when he failed to persuade the army to follow him across the last
river to India.
He was also a master of the full-blown formal encounter between royal equals
(almost nothing in dynastic relationships matches how well Alexander treated the
captured queen, brother, and household of Darius after Issus). Also, at the very top of
Alexander’s range of theatrical performances was his dramatization of the natural
occurrences of sickness and sleep (“slept late” on a morning of battle because he was so
calmed) Sleep in the face of danger, even if feigned, is a magnificent gesture of
reassurance to subordinates.
At the Ammon shrine in Siwah, a very important place both for Egyptians and
Greeks (who believed that ammon was a manifestation of zeus). Alexander is rumored to
have asked if he would conquer the world, but that is only rumor. What is recorded is that
the chief priest, perhaps by accident, addressed Alexander as “Son of Zeus”. Oratory
skills also a very important skill for a leader, which Alexander had. To those who held
power, oratory skill multiplied manifold their ambition and authority.
Alexander’s daily routine very important. Dinner also central to the life of a hero.
Yes enjoyment and relaxation, but also the place where personality was tested, wits
sharpened, limits of boasting and taunting measured, reputations assessed and challenges
thrown down.
Alexander who truly LEAD in battle had to have distinctive dress: his helmet was
iron but polished so much that is shone like silver and also had white plumes, magnificent
cloak. Usually had carried near him the sacred armor taken from Troy, thought to be
relics of the Trojan war. Alexander therefore unmistakable, especially when riding
Bucephalus.
We have a record of 8 wounds: 4 small, 3 serious, 1 nearly mortal. The mortal one
occurred at Multon when he got impatient and went ahead with a small party. Took an
arrow to the lung. Wounds grew more often and more fatal sign of growing
desperation. Alexander was forced to give more and more of himself to the prosecution
of his epic as its dangers and difficulties increased.
Alexander’s fighting force remained essentially Macedonian the whole time. Yes
it had allied and mercenary and some Persian parts, but core was Macedonians who had
to be replaced according to strict laws.
How Alexander thought about battles:
1. if the signs were read correctly, the enemy would betray where he most
feared attack, thereby signaling a psychological vulnerability that was more important
than any imagined physical frailty. 2. The determination to place himself at the head of
the culminating attack at that point.
It may be that both imitators and analysis have failed to ‘find’ Alexander because
they have been searching for and ‘inner’, an ‘essential’ a ‘real’ Alexander which did not
exist. Alexander’s inner life is nearly entirely unknown.
His technique, while above all violent, impetuous and apparently unreflecting
action was not all impulsive. He was an incisive strategist, made meticulous logistic
arrangements. Very good at feeding, paying army in addition to making sure that they
were rested, entertained, flattered, rewarded and granted leave, brave decorated, sick
tended, wounded praised and comforted. Alexander punished when he had to, bribed
when he had to, and never forgot the homesickness and celibacy that he had imposed on
his followers.
3. Sourcebook 3: Badian, "Alexander the Great and the Loneliness of Power," p. 192205.
Romm, Chapters 1 and 2, p. 1-32.
Chapter 1: Alexander, Prince of Macedonia

 Alexander’s Birth
o Born on the same day as temple of Ephesian Artemis burnt down
 Some believed the destruction of the temple foreshadowed another
disaster, and people ran through the streets saying that the day had
given birth to ruin and dire misery for Asia
o 3 Pieces of news reached Philip that day
 Parmenio defeated Illyrians
 Philip’s racehorse won victory at Olympic games
 Alexander born
 Prophets declared that his son had been born on a day of triple
victory, and was therefore unconquerable
 Childhood
o Ambition kept his spirit grave and magnanimous beyond his years
o When asked if he wanted to compete in footrace at the Olympic games, he
replied, “Only if I can compete with kings”
o Entertained Persian king in Philips absenceKing impressed that he
asked no childish or trivial questions
o Believed that more he received from his father, the less he would achieve
in his own right
 Said to comrades, “Boys, my father will get everything first and
will leave no great or glorious deed for me to perform with your
help”
o Alexander tamed Bucephalasrecognized that horse was scared of
shadow
o Aristotle was Alexander’s tutor
 Supposedly kept copy of Iliad under his pillow
 Alexander admired and loved Aristotle at first, but then viewed the
philospher with suspicion later on
 Battle of Chaeronea against Athenians
o Where military career begins
o Alexander delivered the decisive blow that broke the Greek line



Philip bore the brunt of the battle, yet he yielded credit to
Alexander
Rift between Philip and Alexander in the months following Chaerona
o Olympias jealous and sullen that Philip took new wife Cleopatra
 egged Alexander on
 Alexander took Olympias away and established her in Epirius
while he took up temporary residence in Illyria
 Relationship superficially restored by the beginning of 336 BC
Assassination of Philip
o Bodyguard stabbed him and daughter’s wedding to the King of Epirus
Chapter 2: Alexander in Europe
 After Philip’s death, Alexander took precaution of eliminating several rivals,
including Attulus, the uncle of Philip’s new bride
o Philips new wife, Cleopatra was killed, along with her infant child
 Reportedly ordered by Olympias
 Northern Campaigns
o Athens and Sparta rebelling
 Didn’t want to go on to Asia with rebellion at home
o Invaded Thrace
 Thracians threw wagons down mountain, but Alexander taught
soldiers how to stay safe under locked shield
 no one killed
 After wagons gone, Macedonians attacked
 Thracians fled; 1500 killed
 Women, children, property captured
o Moved on to Triballians
 Alexander surprised the Triballians were already encamped
 Triballians rose up to fight in hand to hand with archers
 Alexander drew them out, then ordered the Macedonian
calvalry to take the R and L wings
o Triballians fled to river; 3000 died
o Triballians and Thracians had fled to an island
 Alexander found warships and sailed to islands, but couldn’t land
 Instead, he withdrew ships and decided to march against the Getae
on the other side of the island
 crossed the Danube at nightvery daring
o 1500 horsemen and 4000 foot soldiers
 Getae fled the city
 Alexander seized the city
o Envoys visited Alexander from other tribes settled
near the Danube declaring that they had come
desiring Alexander’s friendship
 Theban Revolt
o Rumor in Thebes that Alexander was dead
o Alexander kept camping out near the Thebans, but not attacking
 In order to give them an opportunity to approach him through
friendship rather than harm
 Thebans realized it was in their best interest to come out to
Alexander and seek forgiveness of the people’s revolt
 However, exiles who had organized the revolt tried to drum
up support for war
 Ptolemy, who wasin charge of Macedonian camp, did not wait for
Alexander’s signal, but instead attacked Thebes
 Alexander led up rest of troops so that Ptolemy wouldn’t be
left at Theban’s mercy
 Followed retreating Thebans, but then Thebans suddenly
turned around and the Macedonians began to flee
 Alexander saw them flee and attacked with Phalanx,
driving Thebans into gates
 Finally, Macedonians (but mostly the Phocians, Plataeans,
and other Boeotians) slaughtered the Thebans in a rage,
sparing neither women nor children
o All survivors enslaved
 Surprising to all other Greeks
o the quickness of action and large # of casualties
 Alexander saved only the house of Pindar the poet
Sourcebook #3: Alexander the Great and the Loneliness of Power by Badian, E.
 Phillip II
o Raise Macedonia from a semi barbarian feudal state to a leading rank
among the powers of the greek world
o Serious estrangement with Olympias and crown prince Alexander
o Assassinated under mysterious circumstances
 After his death, Antipater (one of the most prominent nobles) had
everything prepared so that Alexander’s rule was secured
 Anipater in return was left in charge of Europe when
Alexander went into Asia
 Alexander
o At the beginning, far from all powerful
o No doubt expected to be a puppet of the nobles
o Inherited foreign problemsPhilips war with Persia
o Internal problems: how to become a king in fact as well as in name
 Parmenio: one of Philip’s most trusted generals
o Had to decided whether to rebel against Alexander or submit to his power
o Decided to throw his full weight behind Alexander and eliminated his
rebel son in law, Attalus
o Went with Alexander to Asiatook charge of war against Persia
 Next few yearsAlexander defeated Persian empire
o Darius became a fugitive; then killed by his own men; Alexander sent
hisbody back to his mom
o Greatest glory was that he was supported by commanders



 Known for qualities of courage and leadership
Alexander was Cunning
o Used all opportunities to undermine the position of his excessively
powerful subordinates
 Those in alex’s confidence spread bad rumors about Parmenio so
soldier were loyal to Alexander, not Parmenio
o After all the fighting, alexanders troops wanted to settle down and enjoy
their fruits of victory
o Alexander wanted all of asia!
o Wanted to be the great kingcouldn’t happen with Parmenio in power
 Alexander left Parmenio in charge of lengthening supply lines
 Got rid of his overpowering presence
 Parmenio’s younger son died and Philotas, the elder
brother, stayed behid for the funeral
 Alexander pretended a “conspiracy against the king” theory
was discovered and somehow named Philotas in it
o Philotas executed, even though no proof and no
outward sign of conflict among commanders
o Once Parmenio died, Alexander spread rumors that
he was part of conspiracy too
o Alex gained independence
 Antipater in Europe
o After this, only those trusted were left
 HephaestioAlex’s “alter ego” and BFF
 Promoted friends
o Alex killed Clitus during drunken argument
 Shows his ability to seize a chance offered
 Proclaimed overwhelming remorse and shut himself in tent
 Army claimed that they were lost without him sent
envoys that convicted Clitus of treason and begged
Alexander to return
Alexander wore Persian royal dress and married and Iranian princess
o Wanted to make prostration mandatorythat was going too far
 Learned from mistake and cut losses moved on
Eventually men refused to fight
o Alex retreated and pushed them to fight harder and march longer than
beforeunnecessary
 They were not as eager to fight for him
 To regain their loyalty, he fought in the front line and was
wounded badly
o Finally let them all turn home
 Failure in India caused psychological trauma
o Wanted deificationalways likes story that he was son of Ammon
o Hephaestion died in 324 BC
 Worst blow
 Only man Alexander fully trusted


Alexander had no real purpose leftacquired all power he
could…nothing else worth doing
Fell ill age 32
o When asked who should succeed him, he said “the strongest:”
o He didn’t care about anyone’s personal future enough to help anyone
succeed
o Conquered the world only to lose his soul
 Lonelynever found peace
4. Barnet, Chapters 1 and 2, p. 23-40, 99-119.
Barnet, Chapters 1 and 2, pp. 23-40, 99-119
Emma Lind
Chapter 1- What is an interpretation?
Interpretation: a setting forth of the meaning of a work of art, or, better, as the setting
forth of one of the meanings of the work.
Meaning vs. meanings: Some art historians think there is only one meaning of art,
that is, the meaning it had to the artist. Most art historians today think that a work has
several meanings: the meaning for the artist, the meaning it had for its first audience, the
meaning it had for later audiences, and the meaning it has today.
Question: Who creates “Meaning”—Artist or Viewer?
Intention: an artist’s intention is not always the most important part of a work. Art is
produced by the political, economic, social, and religious ideas of a society. The idea that
the creator of the work cannot comment definitively on it is especially associated with
Roland Barthes and Michael Foucault. It is sometimes argued that the work ought to
belong to the perceivers.
Reception theory: art is not a body of works but it, rather, an activity of perceivers
making sense of images. A work does not have meaning “in itself”; it can mean
something only to someone in a context.
Innocent eye: the mind simply perceives art, looking at art objectively. When we look at
art, we are rarely looking with an innocent eye, but from a particular point of view and
are conditioned by who we are.
Constructionist view: holds that the eye is selective and creative.
Bricolage: a form of spontaneously creating something new by assembling bits and
pieces of whatever happens to be at hand or, in this case, whatever happens to be in the
viewer’s mind. Perceiving and interpreting are, according to some critics, a form of
bricolage.
 These people say that referring to some artists as geniuses or as producers of
masterpieces are giving the artists too much credit and fetishes the individual.
Canon: the body of artworks that supposedly have stood the test of time because of their
inherent quality. The canon is sometimes thought of as being sexist and classist, because
many “masterpieces” can actually be considered propaganda of wealthy people of the
time.
Museums and picture books of art deprive works of art of their original context and
invites perceivers to project their own perceptions onto the work. In an art museum and in
books the emphasis is on form and not function. It demeans non-Western cultures and the
object itself.
Writing about art:
When good writers offer a thesis, they do so in an essay that is:
-Plausible
-Coherent
-Rhetorically effective
-Supported with evidence
The writer assumes a skeptical reader and then argues his or her case.
- In order to make a point, it is better to keep from referring to your own reactions,
and instead point to evidence that shaped your feelings.
Most writing about art seeks to do one or both of two things:
1. To inform
2. To persuade
Most academic writing about art is also analytic. Writing about art includes a range of
kinds of writing:
1. Description
2. Interpretation
3. Analysis or explanation
4. Personal report
5. Evaluation
Prolonged description becomes boring, especially if you include a reproduction of the
work in your essay.
Prolonged personal report will also be of little interest unless you can connect your
responses with your reader’s.
Personal report often involves evaluation, which is usually based on 1) a spontaneous
response and 2) principles alleged to be widely though not universally held.
Chapter 2- Formal Analysis
Formal analysis: an analysis of the form the artist produces; that is, an analysis of the
work of art, which is made up of such things as line, shape, color, texture, mass
composition. These things give the stone or canvas its form, its expression, its content,
and its meaning.
Formal analysis assumes a work of art is:
1. A constructed object
2. With a stable meaning
3. That can be ascertained by studying the relationships between the elements of the
work.
*If the elements “cohere,” the work is “meaningful”
Formal analysis vs. Description
-A description is an impersonal inventory, dealing with the relatively obvious, reporting
what the eye might see, but it does not offer inferences and it does not evaluate.
Opposition to Formal Analysis
-The purpose of formal analysis is to show how intended meanings are communicated in
an aesthetic object.
-Since 1970, this method has been called into question because of the apparent lack of
concern for the object’s context. Nowadays, students tend to deconstruct art, looking for
“fissures” and “slippages” that give away underlying political and social realities the
artist sought to cover up with sensuous appeal.
-However, we can still evaluate art with regards to the artist’s intentions.
Style as the shaper of form
Style: Used neutrally, not to convey praise. Everyone and everything made has a style.
-Every artist has a specific identifying style, and so their works tend to “say” different
things. We recognize certain distinguishing characteristics that mark an artist, or a
period, or a culture, and these constitute the style.
-All the elements of style are expressive.
-Style is revealed in form.
Form: Created by an artist by applying certain techniques to certain materials in order to
embody a particular vision or content.
Thesis: shapes the assertion of facts in an essay
Idealized: the artist’s idea has clearly dominated his eye
Realism: 1) A movement in mid-19th-century Western Europe and America, which
emphasized the everyday subjects of ordinary life, as opposed to subjects drawn from
mythology, history, and upperclass experience; 2) Fidelity to appearances, the accurate
rendition of the surfaces of people, places, and things. Also called naturalism.  This is
the definition we are concerned with.
Idealism: 1) The belief that a work conveys an idea as well as appearances, and 2) The
belief—derived partly from the first meaning—that it should convey an idea that elevates
the thoughts of the spectator, and it does this by presenting an image loftier than any real
object that we can see in the imperfect world around us.
***Remember, there are degrees
Sourebook 7: Bieber, "The Portraits of Alexander the Great," p. 390-421, 423-427.
1) The Alexandrian Conception of Alexander (third and second centuries B.C.)
a. Ptolemy I (general and friend to Alexander) became satrap of Egypt after
Alexander’s death and then king in 306
i. Won the confidence of the Egyptian inhabitants by his clever
treatment and regard for Egyptian usages, monuments and
religious institutions
ii. Capital of Alexandria was center for art, library, museum, industry,
sc etc...
iii. In Egypt there were many small and cheap figures of Alexander in
soft limestone (marble or limestone heads and stucco hair). They
were a dedication to Alexander
iv. First cameos carved with Alexander’s portrait appear to have been
in Alexandria—probably in the third century B.C.
v. Goes through diff sculptures, primarily heads and their common
attributes:
1. attributes of gods were bestowed to Alexander: helmet
accompanied by laurel, thunderbolt, snake
2. his expression is soft, melting look of the eyes/ mouth
open with the expression of yearning
3. sometimes accompanied by Olympias (she is the one who
told the tale of the snake visiting her and telling her that her
son was divine)
4. the masculine and leonine aspect has disappeared just like
in later Ptolemaic coins
5. hair: lion’s main
6. turn of head
7. others represent Alexander as a savior
vi. ***ALL THESE HEADS SHOW the tradition of
IDEALIZATION was prevalent during the third century and still
partly in the second ***
1. shown in sculpture and coins (coins of Cos: Herakles
resembles Alexander)
2. in the later coins of the ptolomies the heads of Alexander
tend to lose their portrait character, same is true for the
Alexandrian marble heads of Alexander
2) The Asiatic conception of Alexander (second century B.C.)
a. The fate of the different Greek states (and its art) changed during the
second century – some for the worse and some for the better
i. Influence of the growing power of Rome
ii. The rulers of all these states continued to consider Alexander as
their ideal model and forerunner
iii. Therefore, while the Alexandrian school decayed, the Asiatic
school of sculpture flourished (particularly under Atalids at
Pergamon)
1. examples of art—a big head now in Constantinople
a. premature aging
b. straight hair
c. expression of pathos and pothos
d. romantic conception of Alexander
2. coins
a. baroque style taken over by Romans, who
considered themselves right heirs to Alexander
3. statue with head of pergamon type/ bronze statuette in
Grado seems to be roman copy of lysippos work
a. unlike louver statuette, head is turned left not right,
accompanied by spear, scabbard, and chlamys
4. statuette form magnesia
a. body strong
b. wreath in hair
c. softer features then head from pergamon
d. expression of longing in eyes and mouth has been
toned down
e. Alexander conceived as Apollo
3) The late Hellenistic and Roman Republican Conception (first century B.C.)
a. Eupator of Pontus: last great male Hellenistic ruler: roman senate forced
him to give up to states he had seized so with his son in law, tigranes of
armenia seized other kingdoms
b. The kings who had lost kingdoms wanted their land back and went to
Rome for help
c. This caused the three so called mithridatic wars (88-84, 83-81, 74-64
B.C.)
d. Liberated and defeated the whole of roman Asia
e. Was seen as the liberator—like Alexander// Greeks honored ... with many
statues and he minted coins of himself
i. Coins minted in odessus imitate the coins of lysimachus only the
features of Alexander are replaced by features of the mathridates
1. headdress of lion, anastole, flowing hair-- still present
2. no doubt that he (eupator, mathridate) felt himself genuine
heir to Alexander, maybe even reincarnation
f. eupator and mithridates lost in 66 b.c. to roman general Pompey—Pompey
also adopted Alexander qualities like the mathridates
i. he imitated Alexander, (he wore hair in anastole and did the same
pose), and even used his name and became Pompey the great:
pompeius magnus
ii. however it looks ridiculous with sober and ugly roman features
iii. BUT: Pompey’s imitation of Alexander is, however, characteristic
for the fact that the roman conquerors were conquered by the
conquered Greeks and adopted all their cultural achievements,
adapting them to the roman character and needs
g. the sculpture heads in this period tend to be colossal in size, with
enhancement of features and of emotional expression—ex) limestone head
found in soli
i. anastole, lions mane, high forehead, opened mouth, broad nose,
long cheeks, large eyes
ii. even though the usual vigor and personal expression is replaced by
a more general, cold and sophisticated spirit—NO DOUBT, that it
is Alexander
h. quality of head in Rome is better than that of the provincial and rather
clumsy one from soli is in accord with the fact that the best Greek artists
were now working in the roman capital
i. for Romans and later the Greeks, Alexander was a man of superhuman
achievements who like herakles had become divine on the basis of his own
illustrious deeds
4) Conceptions during the Roman Empire (first to third century A.D.)
a. Rome had absorbed all Greek states which had been under Alexander
b. Romans adopted Alexander’s idea that harmony, peace and brotherhood
ought to unite all mankind without regard to their race
i. Romans gave citizenship to all the different people who lived in
their empire
ii. Alexander’s dream came true through them and thus they felt like
true heirs
iii. Gave Alexander the title of Alexander magnus
iv. Alexander’s life became more and more a legend--- artist of the
imperial period continued to depict him
1. roman art during the empire was based mostly on Greek
art, but it was not a direct continuation of the late
Hellenistic style
2. classicistic tendency: flourishing schools of copyists
3. probably during the flavian period that a new conception of
Alexander based on the irrational and romantic Hellenistic
ideal led to such creations as the colossal heads of
Alexander in chatsworth—they represented the deified, not
the human, Alexander
a. also depicted as god in statuettes from Paris
4. the idea of Alexander as godlike, but at the same time a
ruler of the world who trusted his own weapons and was
thus on a level with Zeus, is behind these roman creations,
and there was a statue of Alexander as Zeus in Olympia
5. the cool classicism of the hadrianic age toned down this
false emotional approach in art
6. *** Alexander has now become the object of arbitrary
interpretation, artistically as well as ethically ***
7. Caracalla (A.D. 211-217: like formerly the mithridates and
Pompey, not only imitated the appearance of Alexander in
his own attitude, dress, and portraits but also ordered many
pictures and statues of Alexander to be set up everywhere
in Thrace and he filled Rome with statues and pictures of
Alexander in the Capitoline as well as other sanctuaries
a. Alexander has become no longer human but a hero
or transfigures to a god
8. Alexander Severus period (231 of our era) continuing
through Phillipus II Arabs in 249: five diff thematic coins
of Alexander
9. roman portraits f Alexander—families did it to be aided in
life by his legacy (good luck rub off on them)
10. end of the fourth century St. John Chrysostomos blamed
the people of Antioch for wearing Alexander coins and
around their necks and ankles
11. the image and the greatness of Alexander were transmitted
to the middle ages
12. even Islam adopted him as one of its prophets
5) Conclusion
a. Great number and diversity of expressions show how unique personality
of Alexander gave to the art of portraiture impulses which carried on
through the Hellenistic and roman periods
b. Alexander’s ideas of giving equal rights to everyone was adopted during
roman rule, then after being ignored they came to life again in the
American and French revolutions—now promoted by the united nations
commission on human rights
Sourcebook 8 : Hartle, "The Search for Alexander's Portrait," p. 153-176
Sourcebook 12: Green, "Alexander's Alexandria ," p. 3-25.
Hartle
The majority of the piece is dedicated to discussing the Vergina head of Alexander that
was found in Tomb II, potentially philip’s tomb
Important stuff
-has all the classic characteristics of Alexander, has grievous face ie dad just died
-if its Alexander’s portrait in philip’s tomb then ppl have to redefine when
advanced portraiture was developed.
- currently portraiture is thought to have est. in 2nd cen BC, however, this head
moves it to 4cen bc.
- it is a GREEK bust, not a copy, one of the few originals left.
- traits of realism and individuality, or idiosyncrasy
- problems :that the tomb might not be philip’s,
There were so many heads in the tomb that begs the question, how
were they made so fast? Were they all made after Philip died? If they
were made before his death, why the grievous face on Alex
Article also discussed numerous busts that look like Alexander but have names on them
like Helios or Olganos Helios was done by Lysippos, he imprinted parts of the god
onto Alexander or vice versa
 discussed the Bust of Alexander from the Christos G. Bastis Collection, a
statuette, dated to 2nd cen bc. Thought to be one of the figurines held in Alexandrian
households in a shrine to Alex. Its 5.8 cm tall and 4cm wide.
Green
The article discusses the founding of Alexandria. It begins by discussing how the city
was a great melting pot for centuries, but contends that all of its great achievements were
imported. The city was always kept as a separate entity from Egypt until the twentieth
century. Like all the other cities he founded he did not stay to see it constructed. The two
major architects were Deinokrates and Kleomenes. The original city has been very hard
to learn about at length. Archeological attempts have been unsuccessful at unearthing
anything because so much has been built on top of the ruins. Much was also destroyed
because it was completely submerged.
Alex stayed around there to let Darius rebuild his army.
-there is a debate as to when the oracle at Siwah was consulted, before or after he
decided where to build  greeks always needed divine ok to build a city
- Founding of the city was as much strategic as commercial. Used for centuries as
a defensive post.
- anecdote: he was marking out the various features of the city with chalk when he
ran out and had to use barley meal to finish. A swarm of seagulls devoured the barley
and it was seen a sign that the city would be prosperous and provided sustenance for men
of every nation
-city founded most likely Jan 331
-Alex never saw the city while he was alive brought there by Ptolemy when
dead
-Deinokrates was responsible for making the city very prosperous immediately by
hiking grain prices and being generally shifty with extracting money from ppl
-Established a functioning mint
-never any evidence that Alexandria would become Alex’s capital
Romm, Chapters 4 and 5, p. 70-93.
Sourcebook 17 : Beard/Henderson, "Alexander the Great Rides In: a Mosaic at
Pompeii," p.13-23 .
Week 6
Sourcebook 17; Beard/Henderson, “Alexander the Great Rides In: a Mosaic at Pompeii”
The mosaic “Alexander the Great Rides In” is located in the ‘House of the Faun’ the
largest, and probably the most impressive, house of Pompeii. The mosaic is a classic one
and depicts Alexander the Great charging into battle against the armies of Darius. In this
same mosaic, one can see the great distress of the fleeing Darius and the general
confusion surrounding the scene. The flight and expression of Darius is the turning point
of the battle and the critical moment of victory for Alexander the Great. The mosaic is
composed of small cubes (anywhere between 2.5 and 5.5 million) of stone in just 4 or 5
main colors. The fact that it is displayed prominently in a Roman household instructs us
as to the importance of Alexander as an icon even in the Roman culture.
The authors are unsure as to the exact origin of the mosaic, if it was part of spoils from
the Greeks or whether it was a reproduction by Roman artists of a Hellenistic painting.
Many believe that Alexander mosaics tend to be copies of paintings produced during or
shortly after the death of Alexander. Some claim that the original painting of “Alexander
the Great Rides in” was made in Alexandria by ‘Helen.’ The real answer is that nobody
really knows and that for now we must be content with conjectures.
Romm Ch. 4, 5 pg 70-93
Ch. 4 The Egyptian Interlude (Autumn 332-Spring 331 BCE)
Alexander and his army faced the supposedly impregnable port city of Gaza. After 2
months of siege operations and 3 unsuccessful attacks, Alexander’s army breached
Gaza’s defenses and captured the city and ended up killing nearly all of the Gazans.
After Gaza, Alexander ventured south to Egypt.
After learning of Alexander’s impending army and Darius’ cowardly exit at the battle of
Issus, Mazaces the Persian, who had been appointed satrap of Egypt by Darius, received
Alexander warmly in the country. After capturing Pelusium, and the all the places along
his route to Heliopolis and Memphis, Alexander visited the site of present-day
Alexandria. There he fell in love with the landscape and actively participated in the
planning of the city. Alexander then decided to visit the oracle of Ammon in Libya, an
act that was previously undertaken by Perseus and Heracles, both heroes and kinsmen of
Alexander. It was said that divine influence guided Alexander and his men to the temple
of Ammon which is located in an oasis in the middle of the desert. After consulting
Ammon, Alexander led his men back to Egypt
Ch. 5 The War with Darius – Phase II (Summer 331-Summer 330 BCE)
Alexander led his army out of Egypt and then east towards central Persia. King Darius of
Persia was amassing an army near Babylon in preparation for the ensuing battle of
Gaugamela.
Meanwhile King Agis of Sparta, lacking both Persian and Greek support, was rebelling
against Macedonia, but Alexander seemed to trust his steward Antipater to take care of
the rebellion and sent back only his navy. Alexander marched forward, crossing the
Tigris and the Euphrates with little difficulty and no resistance. A lunar eclipse was seen
as a favorable omen ensuring the success of the Macedonians. Darius had allies from all
reaches of his vast empire including the Indians, the Bactrians, the Armenians, The
Albanians, and the list goes on. Darius’s entire army was estimated at 40,000 horsemen,
a million foot soldiers, 200 scythe-bearing chariots, and a number of elephants.
When in sight of the Persians, Parmenio, Alexander’s right-hand man, suggested that
instead of immediately charging, the Macedonians should instead first check out if there
were any traps awaiting them.
Just before battle, Alexander told his men that they didn’t need an inspirational talk and
that they should be inspired by their own courage and prowess in battle. Alexander
decided not to attack at night because it would be disgraceful and a victory, if it were had
by the Macedonians, would not force any sort of surrender of supremacy on the parts of
the Persians. During battle, Darius saw the hopelessness of his situation, and as at the
battle of Issus, he fled, thus giving victory to the Macedonians.
After battle, Alexander went about capturing other provinces in Persia and appointing
various satraps (provincial rulers) to govern these lands. Many of the newly appointed
satraps were in fact Persian, a point that was quite controversial.
After surrounding the capital of Persia, Alexander captured the city and eventually
burned down the exquisite royal palace. The exact reason, either drunkenness or revenge,
for his act is still unknown.
At this point, Alexander was committed to pursuing and capturing Darius because until
Darius was imprisoned, he was still technically the King of Persia. Taking a light force
and traveling non-stop for days, Alexander finally overtook Darius and his allies. Darius
had been arrested by his allies; they had been planning on either bargaining Darius’ life
or amassing an army and taking control of the empire. When Alexander reached them,
they did neither; instead they wounded Darius and soon the Great King of Persia was
dead.
Alexander permitted Darius a royal burial, and took great care of Darius’ family going so
far as to take Darius’ eldest daughter as his wife.
Hammond: sourcebook p. 37-45, and Green: sourcebook p. 47-58.
Both articles are talking about the methods of identifying who is buried in the royal tombs
at Vergina.
Section notes: main ideas from these articles.
We know they’re kings.
Combo of history and archaeology.
Used pottery for dates: it hadn’t been used much, was probably ceremonial.
Religious practices of the time evident
Wreaths, diadems: on coins, Alex always had diadem, ribbon, as heirloom for
successive kings. Everyday ones were made of cloth, the ones in tombs of precious
metals.
Greaves: made of gold, must be ceremonial
Purification: Connection made to Philip after he was assassinated. Need to purify
murders for their crimes.
Gold-wrapped scepter, silver goblets and coffers. Gold-wrapped spear, gold-decorated
cuirass. Not so unlike what we see in the Alexander mosaic—from Pompeii—later.
Most important ID to make: Tomb I, is it Philip or not?
Political: Greek gov. wants the tomb to be Philip.
Greaves are leg armor, wouldn’t have affected Philip—the author is talking about the
wrong leg, physical anthropologists tell us that the sort of injury he had wouldn’t have
made his leg a different length.
Either Philip II or III. Most people think it was Philip II. Figurines were common all over
Mediterranean, but the idea of the figures that might be real people is totally new here.
Realistic, portrait figurines.
Fresco from the front of Tomb II: paint in wet plaster. Way to get all the paint to stick.
Artist must work quickly—once its done, its done.
Green’s list of dates is to decide who the wife is in the tomb.
From Hammond specifically:
The important evidence that he mentions is highlighted in the section notes above.
These articles are basically two scholars disagreeing over interpreting the archaeological
evidence available to decide definitively who is buried at Vergina.
Mound: look at figure 1 in the article. It was positioned to commemorate those buried
underneath it. Secondary tumulus has not been seen other places. Found two funerary
headstones and two skeletons, probably built after tomb 2.
Shrine: indicates worship after death of the person buried in tomb I and probably of the
person buried in 2’s main chamber. Much different from other trench-like burials at
Vergina.
Tomb 1 was constructed before the vault came into use at Aegeae. Earliest description
of a vaulted tomb under ground level: in plato’s laws.
Alexander IV was born 323 and died 310. because cremated remains in silver urn in
tomb 3, it must be Alex IV without question.
Tripod commemorating the games at Argos: dated to 450, won by ancestor of tomb 2
burial.
Earliest representation of a diadem: figure 2, coinage of Alex I from 477 onwards.
Diadem on Tarsus medallion of Philip II
Cloth iadem worn by Alex III over his kausia.
Diadem in tomb 2 could have been made for any Macedonian king from Alex I onwards,
so it doesn’t help us much.
Armor in main chamber: of use for dating. Sarissa: invented by Philip II in 359, its
presence means tomb was after that. Appropriate armor for the time of Philip II’s death,
use of iron has been traced to helmet and gorget of Alexander at battle of Gaugamela.
Cremation of a corpse on a wood-pyre did not consume teeth and bones: analyzed as
35-50 years old. Knocks some people out, and we’re down to Philip II, who died at 46
and Philip III Arrhidaeus, who died at 40 in 316.
Gold and ivory likenesses of dead mean for his tomb first mentioned in Diodorus. Group
of five heads, one can be dated to the time of its making: Alex III portrayed as a young
man, probably before his ascenscion to the throne in 336. Another is Philip II middle
aged because of damaged eyebrow and blinded right eye due to an injury right now.
Man seen full face in the painting below the cornice, which was done to honor the king:
successor of king and commissioner of picture. This dead king and successor
combination applies only to Philip II and Alexander III.
Tomb 2 built in stages. First was single chamber, different in having vaulted top, twoleaved door and larger dimensions. Interior left in unfinished state. Second was
construction of antechamber. Immediate forerunner of the standard Macedonian builttomb: two chambers, vaulted roof, two two leaved doors, applied columns, outside
fresco. Tomb 2 has no pediment and a burial in the ante chamber.—most others have
two burials in back chamber.
Antechamber of 2 has gold objects fit for burial of a queen. Scythian type of quiver
cover, pile of arrows, and horsemen on pectoral are particularly appropriate for a
Scythian queen. Matching of her death with kings may or may not have been an
accident, suttee was practiced by some Thracian tribes.
In view of the haste with which the main chamber was closed, some of the offerings in
the main chamber may have been meant for the king’s chamber—such as the “uneven”
pair of gold greaves. Already 3 matching pairs inside.
King and queen presumably cremated on same pyre. Other items cremated with them
that would indicate Alex (not really important). Small pyre on the cornice had sherds, and
bones of birds or small animals, so it was purificatory.—indicates dead man is Philip II.
He concludes that its important to focus on the big picture and not details. Still no
explanation for hunting scene. Position of tomb 2 implies worship = royal.
Dates he puts forth:
370: Alexander built Tomb 1 for Amyntas III, so Alex II chose site apart from tombs of
other kings. After Philip II assassinated, built his tomb close to tomb 1. tombs 1 and 2
now covered with extensive tumulus of red soil.
In 321, Macedonians probably placed trophies from Persia and statues of Alexander and
his special commanders in a stoa constructed close to the tumulus of red soil.
After 310 worship ceased at burnt area by shrine. Giant mound erected later to
commemorate the entire dynasty.
Green (only where he contradicts Hammond):
Takes a sharp tone because he’s upset a lot of the data wasn’t released from the
Professor Andronikos, who found the tomb, and that we have to trust his interpretations
and judgments without anyone else being able to examine the objects for themselves.
Pottery dates especially fluctuated, in terms of the info released to other historians.
Also cautions against dating “on aesthetics”: for example, a lamp that some people said
pointed to a certain date was conspicuously absent from later articles of his—which
doesn’t make sense. According to Hammond, having no frescoes for comparison makes
dating even more difficult.
Considers “external evidence” instead: history and prosopography of Macedonian royal
house and applying that to Vergina finds.
Most of work has been done to verify that it was indeed Philip II buried in tomb 2, but
together they all point to conditions of royalty rather than a specific king.
Assertion that diadem is Oriental importation of Alexander’s is highly debatable and,
arguably, at variance with earlier numismatic evidence.
About the shortened greave that was supposedly Philip II’s: again, such a wound would
not shorten his leg, and his injuries would have no connection to these greaves in
antechamber of tomb II.
Ancient Aigeai and modern Vergina are the same. Things found indicate royal burials:
aigeai was traditional burial place of Macedonian royals, and things found in the tombs
would indicate a royal burial, and the Tumulus of Vergina can be identified as the
Macedonian royal cemetery.
**important: he thinks that identity of all the burials can be can be considered part of a
single, interdependent inquiry: all candidates are in direct descent from Philip himself,
which drastically reduces the number under consideration, so we need to figure out who
the woman is.
Looking at philip’s marital status from a written source; status of these wives determines
which of them were and were not entitled to a burial in the royal acropolis at Aigeai.
By 358/7 Philip needed dynastic wife and further territorial consolidation, so he had kids,
but no marriage, with two Thessalian women. With Necesipolis, two sources say she
was just a mistress.
But his marriage to olympias, in 357, gave him Alexander III in 356 and Cleopatra about
a year later, but Olympias is said to have been denied burial of any sort.
342: foreign, politically based marriage to Thracian princess, Meda. She bore no
surviving kids.
Cleopatra: certain that she died as a regnant queen, died or made to commit suicide in
335 with her child, but its highly likely she was buried here.
Tomb 3: mural depicting two-chariot horse race—indicating occupants hobby—and
bones of a boy between 12 and 14, must be Alex IV or Heracles, son of Barsine. He
thinks “aesthetic grounds” don’t work and gives it provisionally, 310 or 309.
Tomb 1 was robbed and only some bones, murals, pieces of pottery are left. Murals
suggest young girl cut off in her prime. We know that Olympias was buried with Philip
Arrhidaeus as his queen. Only remaining candidate that fits all criteria for tomb 1 is
Cleopatra-Eurydice.
Thus: Philip II and Cleopatra-Eurydice OR Philip III Arrhidaeus and Adea-Eurydice are
only viable candidates for 2 and its antechamber, and cumulative weight of evidence
suggests the former.
Main argument against the latter: the antechamber was added reasonably soon after
the closing of Tomb 2. thus, cassander interred them at aigeai together, no need for a
quick burial in their case.
Indecisive for most of the evidence still: diadem indicates royalty, but not who wore it,
could have been a copy and original given to ancestors, etc. Homeric elements in ritual
could just as easily be Philip II or III.
We aren’t sure of the building’s function: if we were, it would strengthen the case for
Philip II, but it could have been any kind of shrine.
Thus, case for Philip II is stronger but cannot yet be proven. Strongest piece: inscription
with name of Philip II’s brother. Name is rare. This, with later completion of
antechamber, is the strongest piece of evidence we have. Cites the need for an
epigraphic text to be completely sure of who it is.
9.
Sourcebook 6: Ridgway, "Court Art and Hellenistic Art: The Role of Alexander," p.
43-58.
Sourcebook 18: Badian, "A Note on the 'Alexander Mosaic'," p. 75-92.
COURT ART AND HELLENISTIC ART: THE ROLE OF ALEXANDER THE
GREAT

Alexander the Great





o Great admirer of Achilles, strove to pattern himself after Homeric hero,
both in behavior and in iconography, in the statues of himself he
commissioned
o His successors shone with reflected light, using Alexander’s image to give
themselves power and legitimacy
o Depicted with attributes of divinity, worshiped in various guises, and
hailed as founder of hundreds of cities
Hellenistic period—refers to mixture of artistic and cultural forms that resulted
when Greek civilizations spread to countries which, although non-Greek, often
possessed a major civilization of their own
o In art history terms—artistic production of the period between the first
campaigns of Alexander in Asia (331 BC) and fatal defeat in (31 BC) of
his last successor, Cleopatra VII
Paper about:
o 1) we have given historical meaning to depictions of Alexander simply
because he occurs in them, but this might not in fact be the correct
approach
o 2) that Hellenistic art is not indebted so much to non-Greek contributions
for its particular character, but rather might be a direct derivation from
Macedonian art
To argue first point look at Alexander Mosaic from the House of the Faun in
Pompeii
o Spirited battle in which Alexander takes part
o Moment seems crucial, but it is the Persian details that are striking (the
large wheels, inlays in dagger, etc.) that a Greek would not have known
unless was part of Alexander’s campaigns
o Because so much realism, specific incident should have historical validity
This is a historical event confirmed by another monument the Alexander
Sarcophagus 331 BC
o Marble casket for Sidonian king Abdalonymos
o Battle scene is on the sarcophagus, though not completely identical
o Not main part of sarcophagus, since faced wall
o Instead side depicting lion hung facing interior of chamber
o The Sidonian king treasured his friendship with Alexander (who defeated
him but became friends) so immortalized on his casket
o Alexander was known for going lion hunting in the East, historical episode
basis of representations
o There is another scene that is so accurate on this sarcophagus that we
know it has to be a true event
The motif of the stumbling horse
o Can be found almost every time a cavalry is depicted
o Because this is the type of event that can happen anywhere, there is always
a stumbling horse being portrayed
o Example, look at Lefkadia tomb and Nereid Monument, north frieze of
Nike Temple



Author believes that rather than taking from countries where he went—countries
like Persia and Egypt that are better known for their endless repetition of staid
stylistic formulas over the centuries—Alexander brought to them some of this
flamboyant Macedonian art
o The Derveni Krater, one meter tall made of bronze
o Style of the figures have mix of early and late traits
Conclusion:
o We should try to give Alexander less credit for historical truth in all the
episodes in which he appears, but certainly more credit for spreading to
the ancient world some of the riches of his own court
Note: this article does A LOT of interpretation, thought it wasn’t that important.
But if you’re interested in seeing HOW she came to these conclusions, the article
is on pages 59-74.
A NOTE ON THE “ALEXANDER MOSAIC”
 Called the “Alexander Mosaic” appears to be largely due to an accident of its
discovery and history
o Discovered in October 1831 in House of the Faun, or House of Goethe
(since it was owned by him at that time)
o Goethe noted that Alexander is shown as the conqueror and Darius as the
one in flight—this outlook has affected practically all future
interpretations
o It seemed inconceivable that Alexander could not be depicted as the allconquering hero
 BUT at a mere glance, truly dominating position of Darius in his
chariot as the artistic focal point on the right, as the tree is on the
left, and above all the visual obscurity of Alexander himself
 The Mosaic should in fact have been more appropriately called the
Darius Mosaic
 From the Greek point of view find a depiction of the barbarian King as cowardly
and cruel, while from the Egyptian point of view he sees Alexander as the true
Pharaoh and Darius mocked as the foreign enemy
 A realistic action painting like the original of the Mosaic is the painter’s
equivalent of a snapshot. Free to choose a moment that illustrates what he regards
as the significant message, but is free to reconstruct it and is not forced to seize it
as it occurs
 Practically whole of the Macedonian half of picture is lost
o The actual movement is from right to left
 Darius leans forward, all the Persians lean forward
 Alexander’s horse is rearing, he is leaning slightly away from
enemy
 Bucephalus shown as apparently unwilling to attack and rearing
away from enemy
 Momentum enhanced by the tree
 Art historians say this battle was probably of Gaugamela
 Darius dominates the action





Alexander’s portrayal not the standard later heroic or divine portrait, but portrait
of warrior
o He is quite ugly, though it does not guarantee full authenticity, likely a
caricature
o unable to control his recalcitrant horse
o bareheaded, helmet lying on the ground
The tree dominates the whole composition
o The tree, dwarfing Alexander “the Great” essentially stands for the vanity
of human, and especially of heroic effort
Only Alexander battle reliably assigned to an artist in antiquity is that painted by
Philoxenus of Eretria for Cassander
o He commissioned this painting, a “philosophical” one
o Alexander shown with features distorted to ruthless ugliness that
Cassander remembered (Cassander hated him)
o Battle paradoxically depicted at moment when his enemy, although
ultimately defeated, dominates the action; and the tree behind him
symbolizes the vanity f his heroic striving and the destruction that was the
sole result of it.
o It is also clear that the artist must at least have worked from a very
detailed description of Darius
Return to the puzzle of the tree
o Hellenistic times, dead trees became mere items of artistic furniture
o Dead trees first seen in freeze of “royal hunt” in tomb 2 of Vergina
o The introduction of the deliberately fictitious dead tree as a symbol and as
the artistic center of the whole composition was quite probably suggested
by Persian hunting scenes in paradeisoi depicted in Asia Minor
o Only makes originality of artist’s genius shine forth all the more brightly
This article basically looks at the mosaic we have looked at in class and
reinterprets it. Perhaps not the Alexander Mosaic but the Darius Mosaic. Then
uses other works to bolster his claims.