ACCOUNT FOR THE RISE OF FASCISM IN ITALY
©Paul Montgomery B.A. Theol, M.A Chap. Grad. Holocaust Ed.,
Introduction
Fascism: The Italian nationalist movement organised in 1919 by Benito
Mussolini on military lines, its policy being anti-parliamentary and anticommunistic, with an economic system based on state controlled capitalism. 1
For our purposes, this formal definition is a good starting point to account for the rise in fascism in
Italy. My endeavour in this essay will be an elaboration on this concise introductory quote. As I
develop my argument, it will become apparent that fascism did not arise of it own accord, as if in a
vacuum, rather it was more of a reaction to and consequence of the social, political and economic
setting at the time. Likewise it was not one single event, but a conglomeration of circumstances
that culminated with the emergence of fascism under Mussolini in Italy.
The seedbed of Fascism.
On 26 April, 1915, even tough she was psychologically and militarily unprepared, Italy signed the
Treaty of London, committing her to the Anglo-French cause in the First World War. As the war
progressed all sides realised that the battle was lasting longer than anyone had expected.
Specifically in Italy's case, this prolonged conflict was immensely exhaustive to the economy.
Overall the effect was devastating for Italy. "Casualties were high: over half a million killed,
600,000 captured and a million wounded of whom 450,000 were permanently disabled."2
Hugh amounts of conscripts were drafted from the peasant class, most of who did not appreciate
being forced into a cause they identified little with. Their bitterness would remerge at a later stage.
Italy's intervention in the war was fundamentally to grasp as much territory as she could. "Italy thus
emerged from the resettlements of Europe with a substantial increase in territory (the Trentino and
Istra), a fine strategic boundary both north and east, and a firmer grip on the Dalmatian coastline."3
However it was this very gain in territory that caused problems. Most of the land was arid and
infertile, and so of no agricultural use. Also Italy received significantly less land in proportion to
her allies, she literally felt short-changed. This resentful feeling would remain in Italian politics and
if she wanted to assert herself again in foreign affairs she would have to adopt a more independent
stance.
Post War Crisis.
Italy emerged from the war in disunion and the effects of the conflict were felt throughout the
country. Wartime production had created an economic and industrial boom, but the armistice found
Italy facing similar problems as the other interventionist countries. "Food and raw material
shortages during 1918-19; acute inflation………and 2.5 million demobilised ex-servicemen
returning home to from early 1920, rapidly raising unemployment.4
A general sense of chaos, including an increase in violence and crimes characterised Italian society
during the post-war period. The failing economy forced wages down which erupted in massive
labour strikes and increased membership in worker's unions. Food riots began in 1920, another
indicator of the large scale social unrest at the time.
1
Dr. Dunne's lecture notes 1/02/1999
Blinkhorn, Martin, Mussolini and Fascist Italy, p.9
3
Header,H and Waley, D,P. A short history of Italy, p.199
4
Blinkhorn, Martin. Mussolini and Fascist Italy, p.10
2
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Political Failure
In the political arena at this time the two main parties in government were the Socialists (PSI) and
the Partito Popolare Italiano (PPI), which was a Catholic party led by Fr. Luigi Sturzo, and
approved by the Vatican. However this government was internally divided and fragmented. The
worst offenders were the leaders of parliament themselves. Nitti who took up office as Premier
from June 1919 to April 1920 allowed a rapid deterioration in the countries socio-economic
condition. His successor Giolitti continued this passive leadership of government. The chief
agitators of the public at this time were the socialists, who were left to their own destructive devices
by government.
The years from 1918-20 became known as the "bienno rosso" (the red years)5. The socialist
movement, of which there was on central organisation, was compared to the Russians in the
'Bolshevik' revolution because of their violence, murder, and crimes. They even adopted the
hammer and sickle emblem of the Russians and inaugurated what their opponents called the reign
of terror. These riotous socialists had from the beginning adopted a neutrality stance in relation to
the war and now blamed the interventionists for the country's depression. They spent their time
seeking, beating, and murdering ex-servicemen and army officers and generally exacerbating the
already volatile situation in Italian society.
What is of the essence here is that these events highlight the failure of successive governments to
stabilise the economy and control the boisterous rebels. Something had to happen, someone had to
do something. "What was wanted was a man of greater energy and bolder views [than his
predecessors], who would be able to replace a precarious and uncertain balance, providing the
country with something stronger and more final."6
This then give us an idea of the social malaise out of which fascism would arise and sets the
backdrop to Mussolini's rise to power.
Mussolini's rise to Power
Benito Mussolini was a member of the socialist party, the PPI, from which he was expelled in 1914
because he supported Italy's intervention in the war. After he gladly returned home from his service
in the war he re-entered the political arena. "It was in March 1919, in the office of his paper….at
Milan, that Mussolini formed the first Fascio di Combattenti, or battle band."7 About a hundred exsoldiers were present all of who vowed to crush the Reds, as they called the socialists. Over the
next two years the Fasci multiplied and a state of civil war ravaged Italy. Moreover, the fascist
movement gained the sympathy and support of the upper and middle classes who feared the
encroaching communist threat from the socialists. It is not surprising therefore to find in the May
elections of 1921, that the fascists under Mussolini secured thirty-five seats in government.
The opposition Mussolini faced in parliament was mainly from the liberals and the PPI. Therefore
he needed to accentuate his influence in government, so in the autumn
of 1921 Mussolini formed a new political party called the Partito Nazionale Fascista. (PNF), "with
a frankly rightist programme embracing monarchism, free trade
And anti-socialism."8
March on Rome
Another event consolidated the charismatic portrayal of Mussolini's character in the Italian
perception. On 1 August 1922, a group of socialists, republicans, and liberals staged a general
strike. Mussolini ordered the fascists (who now numbered 152,000), to seize control of and operate
5
Blinkhorn, Martin. Mussolini and Fascist Italy, p.11
Procacci, Giuliano. History of the Italian People, p.415
7
Hearder.H and Waley D.P. A Short History of Italy, p.202
8
Blinkhorn, Martin. Mussolini and Fascist Italy, p.16
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the essential services. This had a twofold productive effect for Mussolini. Firstly, he now had
control of the main lines of communication between North Italy and Rome, and secondly this event
had the physical and psychological ramification of asserting Mussolini as authoritive and in control
of an otherwise crumbling nation. What is ironic here is that the socialists became their own worst
enemy, diminishing their own credibility which inadvertently advanced the fascists.
Largely in response to this, the Italian King invited Mussolini in October 1922 to form a cabinet and
present his threefold manifesto before parliament. It proposed the following:
(1) Supremacy of
the state in all matters.
(2) No opposition to his party in government.
(3) Advancement of the empire.
" The chamber gave a vote of confidence to Mussolini's new government, which included popular
and liberal ministers, by 306 votes to 116."9
Now premier of the government, with his armed fascists, (who by the end of 1922 numbered
300,000) Mussolini had, complete control of the country. All that lay ahead was the
implementation of his announced statement.
Matteotti Crisis
On 10 June 1923, Giacomo Matteotti, the popular socialist deputy was murdered. The socialists
blamed the fascists and in protest they left parliament. However the senate passed a vote of
confidence in Mussolini's government. With no parliamentary opposition the beginnings of a
totalitarian regime emerged. To establish the means of his goal, which was toward dictatorship
Mussolini began to fascisize the whole of Italy. He established O.V.R.A (Oper volontaria
repessione anti fascista), the secret police, to suppress any rising anti fascists.
"It made clear……….the absence or any effective reaction in the country to the policy of brute
force upon which the government relied."10 But how did Mussolini lull the senses of Italian society
to this irrational force? He did by use of propaganda. This truly cultivated among the people an
ignorance of the real situation. The press was forced by the fascia to be pro-fascist, therefore
eradicating any independence of thought, opinion, or comment contrary to the regime. Furthermore
they were manipulated to foster Mussolini's cult of personality, as Il Duce, (the leader) all over
Italy, conveying the false impression of a rational regime under a charismatic figure.
Introduction of a Corporate State
Between the years 1925-29 Mussolini implemented a corporate state, "a system of purporting to be
revolutionary yet socially unifying, to guarantee economic progress and social justice by bringing
employers, managers and workers together within a legally constituted framework."11 By this
ingenious plan Il Duce could now control the means of production in Italy.
Only one possible opponent remained and that was the powerful influence of the Catholic Church.
This church/state conflict was soon resolved. In February 1929 Mussolini signed the Latern Treaty
with Rome. It is undoubted that Mussolini at this stage had total control over all aspects of the
country. Italy had finally come under the leadership of an authoritarian dictator.
Conclusion.
In this essay I have accounted for the rise of fascism in Italy. Specifically I described the political
and socio-economic sphere at the time because, as I have argued, one cannot understand fascism
fully until it seen in the context of its environment. Mussolini realised and reacted to the
deficiencies he saw around him during the post war period. The immanent socialist’s threat of
communism hastened Mussolini’s rise to power. He literally filled a political vacuum and satisfied a
9
Procacci,Giuliano, History of The Italian People, p.419
Hearder,H and Waley, D.P, A Short History of Italy, p.208
11
Blinkhorn, Martin, Mussolini and Fascist Italy, p.22.
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social yearning for order and peace once more. Fascism in its infancy was conceived to be
respectable. I have shown the various manoeuvres contrived by Mussolini and enforced by the
fascia to advance and maintain their power and respectability, namely; the crush of the ‘red threat’,
the cult of personality and cultivation of ignorance among Italians, the coercion by the police,
propaganda stabilising the economy and so on. It was these means that Mussolini adopted to
achieve his end and to usher in bestir the rise of fascism.
Bibliography
(1) Blinkhorn, Martin. Mussolini and Fascist Italy. London & New York, 1990.
(2) Clark, Martin. Modern Italy 1871-1982. London & New York, 1991.
(3) Davis, John & Ginsborg, Paul. Society and Politics in the Age of the Risorgimento (essays in
honour of Denis Mack Smith). Cambridge, 1991.
(4) Hearder.H & Waley D.P. A Short History of Italy. Cambridge, 1974.
(5) Procacc, Giuliano. History of the Italian People, London, 1973.
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